Single Science Biology — 4BI0 All Biology lessons including Biology-only spec points.
Lesson 1The Characteristics of Living Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 3–4
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 understand how living organisms share the following characteristics: they require nutrition they respire they excrete their waste they respond to their surroundings they move they control their internal conditions they reproduce they grow and develop
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the characteristics of life
- describe the characteristics of life.
🔑 Key Words
- cell: the basic unit that living organisms are made of
- excretion: getting rid of waste substances that are produced inside an organism
- homeostasis: keeping the conditions inside an organism at constant levels
- multicellular: made of many cells
- nutrition: the process by which an organism gets the substances it needs for energy, health and growth
- respiration: the process by which organisms release energy from their food
- stimulus: a change that an organism detects, inside or outside its body
- unicellular: made of one cell
Lesson 2The Structures of Animal and Plant Cells→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 4–6
📚 Specification Points
- 2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole
- 2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole
- 2.4 know the similarities and differences in the structure of plant and animal cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the cell structures in animal and plant cells
- describe the functions of cell structures in animal and plant cells
- compare the structures of plant and animal cells.
🔑 Key Words
- cell membrane: thin outer covering of a cell that controls what enters and leaves it
- cell wall: a tough layer of material around some cells that is used for protection and support and in plant cells it is stiff and made of cellulose
- chlorophyll: green substance found inside chloroplasts that traps energy from light
- chloroplast: green cell structure in which glucose is produced by photosynthesis
- chromosome: structure inside the nucleus that contains genes
- cytoplasm: watery jelly inside a cell where the cell’s activities take place
- enzyme: a protein that controls a chemical reaction in the cytoplasm
- gene: section of genetic material (usually DNA) that controls part of the activity of a cell
- mitochondrion: cell structure in which respiration using oxygen occurs and the plural is mitochondria
- nucleus: cell structure that controls the cell
- organelle: small part of a cell that has a certain function and chloroplasts, nuclei and mitochondria are all organelles
- partially permeable membranes: membranes that allow some substances through them but not others
- ribosome: cell structure that makes proteins
- vacuole: space surrounded by a membrane in the cytoplasm of cells. Plant cells have a large permanent vacuole, which stores water and nutrients, and helps to support the plant by keeping the cells rigid.
Lesson 3Features of Eukaryotic Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 25–28
📚 Specification Points
- 1.2 describe the common features shown by eukaryotic organisms: plants, animals, fungi and protoctists Plants: these are multicellular organisms; their cells contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out photosynthesis; their cells have cellulose cell walls; they store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose. Examples include flowering plants, such as a cereal (for example, maize), and an herbaceous legume (for example, peas or beans). Animals: these are multicellular organisms; their cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not able to carry out photosynthesis; they have no cell walls; they usually have nervous co-ordination and are able to move from one place to another: they often store carbohydrate as glycogen. Examples include mammals (for example, humans) and insects (for example, housefly and mosquito). Fungi: these are organisms that are not able to carry out photosynthesis; their body is usually organised into a mycelium made from thread-like structures called hyphae, which contain many nuclei; some examples are single-celled; their cells have walls made of chitin; they feed by extracellular secretion of digestive enzymes onto food material and absorption of the organic products; this is known as saprotrophic nutrition; they may store carbohydrate as glycogen. Examples include Mucor, which has the typical fungal hyphal structure, and yeast, which is single-celled. Protoctists: these are microscopic single-celled organisms. Some, like Amoeba, that live in pond water, have features like an animal cell, while others, like Chlorella, have chloroplasts and are more like plants. A pathogenic example is Plasmodium, responsible for causing malaria.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term eukaryotic
- describe plants, animals and many fungi as multicellular organisms
- describe the features of plants, animals, fungi and protoctists
- compare the features of plants, animals, fungi and protoctists using examples.
🔑 Key Words
- alga: protoctist that can photosynthesise. Plural is algae.
- Amoeba: common protoctist (and a protozoan)
- cellulose: type of carbohydrate found in the cell walls of plants and some protoctists
- chitin:type of carbohydrate found in the cell walls of fungi
- Chlorella: common alga (protoctist)
- eukaryotic:describes organisms with cells that contain nuclei, mitochondria and other organelles with membranes around them. Animals, plants, fungi and protoctists are all eukaryotes.
- glycogen: storage carbohydrate made in animals and fungi. Found in liver and muscles.
- hypha: thread-like filament of cells in fungi
- invertebrate: animal without a vertebral column (backbone)
- kingdom: Biologists often divide living things into five large groups, called kingdoms: plants, animals, fungi, protoctists and bacteria.
- multicellular: made of many cells
- Mucor: a mould fungus
- mycelium:massive network of hyphae in multicellular fungi
- nervous system: network of nerve cells that carry information from one part of an animal to another
- pathogen: microorganism that causes disease
- Plasmodium: protoctist that causes malaria
- prokaryotic:describes organisms whose cells have organelles that do not have membranes around them (such as nuclei and mitochondria). Bacteria are prokaryotes.
- protoctist: kingdom of eukaryotic organisms, most of which are single-celled.
- protozoan: single-celled protoctist that needs to feed on other organisms or their remains. Plural is protozoa.
- saprophytic:describes organisms that feed on dead or decaying matter. Fungi are saprophytes.
- starch: storage carbohydrate made in plants
- sucrose: carbohydrate (a sugar) made in plants, which some plants store
- unicellular: made of one cell
- vertebrate: animal with a vertebral column (backbone)
- yeast: a unicellular fungus
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should not seal a dish all the way around the join between its top and base, since this can allow the growth of dangerous anaerobic organisms. Using two pieces of tape allows some air to enter the dish.
- • Tell the students that, once sealed, the plates must not be reopened.
- • Students should examine the plates and record their results. Students should dispose the plates safely (e.g. using an autoclave), according to your school and country’s safety procedures.
- • Ask students to wash their hands after handling the dish.
- • After the method to expose the plates has been followed, the dishes should be left upside down in a warm place (or incubator set at 25 °C). Colonies should appear within 48 hours. Plates should not be left for much longer than 48 hours to prevent overgrowth of colonies.
Lesson 4Prokaryotic Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 28–29
📚 Specification Points
- 1.3 describe the common features shown by prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria Bacteria: these are microscopic single-celled organisms; they have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids; they lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA; some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis but most feed off other living or dead organisms. Examples include Lactobacillus bulgaricus, a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk, and Pneumococcus, a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term prokaryotic
- identify prokaryotic features from images of bacteria
- describe the functions of the different features of bacterial cells
- describe the roles of:many bacteria as decomposersLactobacillus bulgaricusin the production of yoghurtPneumococcusin the development of pneumonia.
- many bacteria as decomposers
- Lactobacillus bulgaricusin the production of yoghurt
- Pneumococcusin the development of pneumonia.
🔑 Key Words
- bacteria:small single-celled organisms that are prokaryotic
- capsule:an outer layer that protects bacteria
- flagellum:a tail-like structure used for movement in some bacteria
- nucleoid:an area of the cytoplasm in a bacterial cell in which there is a circular chromosome
- plasmids:small circular pieces of DNA that are found in the cytoplasm of bacterial cells.
- prokaryote:an organism with cells that lack a nucleus
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students must not open the plates.
- • Students should wash their hands after handling the plates.
- • Students should dispose of all plates safely (e.g. using an autoclave), according to your school and country’s safety procedures.
Lesson 5Pathogens→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 28–29
📚 Specification Points
- 1.4 understand the term pathogen and know that pathogens may include fungi, bacteria, protoctists or viruses Viruses: these are not living organisms. They are small particles, smaller than bacteria; they are parasitic and can reproduce only inside living cells; they infect every type of living organism. They have a wide variety of shapes and sizes; they have no cellular structure but have a protein coat and contain one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. Examples include the tobacco mosaic virus that causes discolouring of the leaves of tobacco plants by preventing the formation of chloroplasts, the influenza virus that causes ‘flu’ and the HIV virus that causes AIDS.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term pathogen
- recognise that pathogens can be bacteria, fungi, viruses or protoctists
- outline the basic parts of a virus particle
- explain why viruses are not classed as living
- describe the effects of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), the influenza virus and HIV.
🔑 Key Words
- DNA:genetic material found in most organisms, which stores instructions
- nucleic acid: either RNA or DNA
- parasite:an organism that lives in or on another organism, which it harms (usually by feeding on it)
- pathogen: microorganism that causes disease
- protein coat: tough layer surrounding the genetic material in a virus
- RNA:genetic material similar to DNA that stores instructions in some viruses
- virus:non-living particle that can make copies of itself in living cells.
Lesson 6Cell Differentiation and Stem Cells→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 18–21
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems
- 2.5B explain the importance of cell differentiation in the development of specialised cells Bio only
- 2.6B understand the advantages and disadvantages of using stem cells in medicine Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems
- explain the need for cell differentiation to produce specialised cells
- discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using stem cells in medicine.
🔑 Key Words
- adult stem cell: stem cell that can differentiate into one of a small range of specialised cells
- differentiation:a process during which a cell changes in structure to be able to perform a particular function
- embryonic stem cell: stem cell that can differentiate into any specialised cell
- ethics: what people believe is fair or right or wrong
- meristem:area of stem cells found near the growing part of a root or shoot in plants
- mitosis: type of cell division in which one cell becomes two identical cells
- organ system: a group of organs working together to perform an important job
- organ: a group of tissues working together to perform an important job
- stem cell:an undifferentiated cell that can give rise to other types of cells
- tissue: a group of the same type of cells working together
- zygote:a single cell formed by the fusion of a male and a female sex cell
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Handle glass slides and coverslips carefully — they break easily and can be sharp.
Lesson 7Biological Molecules 1 – Carbohydrates→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 53–55 and 58
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates
- 2.8 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugars, protein from amino acids, and lipid from fatty acids and glycerol
- 2.9 practical: investigate food samples for the presence of glucose and starch
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recognise that carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are organic molecules
- name the reagents used to test for glucose and starch
- carry out tests for simple sugars (glucose) and starch (part of Core Practical 1) and know the positive results when testing for glucose and starch
- recognise that starch and simple sugars are carbohydrates and how starch is synthesised from, and can be broken down into, simple sugars.
🔑 Key Words
- element:a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler forms
- macromolecules:large molecules
- precipitate:solid particles that sometimes form in a solution
- reagents:chemicals used to analyse substances
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should wash any splashed liquids quickly from skin.
- • Students should not taste any of the food.
- • Ask students to take care with hot water in the water bath.
- • Remind students that Benedict’s solution can be harmful to skin and eyes.
- • Students should report any spillages and wash hands after finishing.
Lesson 8Biological Molecules 2 – Lipids and Proteins→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 54–55 and 58
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates
- 2.8 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugars, protein from amino acids, and lipid from fatty acids and glycerol
- 2.9 practical: investigate food samples for the presence of glucose and starch
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe lipids as fats and oils, made of the subunits glycerol and fatty acids and describe proteins as polymers of amino acids
- name the reagents used to test for lipids and proteins
- carry out tests for lipids and proteins (part of Core Practical 1) and know the positive results when testing for lipids and proteins.
🔑 Key Words
- emulsion: droplets of one liquid suspended in another liquid
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should wash any splashed liquids quickly from skin.
- • Students should not taste any of the food.
- • Remind students that biuret reagent is corrosive and can be harmful to skin and eyes.
- • Students should report any spillages and wash hands after finishing.
Lesson 9Enzyme Action and the Effect of Temperature→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 6–12
📚 Specification Points
- 2.10 understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions
- 2.11 understand how temperature changes can affect enzyme function, including changes to the shape of active site
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term biological catalyst
- explain the action of enzymes on substrates
- explain the effect of temperature on enzyme activity.
🔑 Key Words
- active site: a part of an enzyme molecule with a specific shape where a particular substrate will bind
- catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed
- denatured: when the shape of an enzyme's active site has been changed so that it no longer fits a particular substrate and the enzyme cannot work
- optimum temperature: the temperature at which the rate of a reaction is the fastest
- substrate: a substance on which an enzyme acts
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should take care when using hydrogen peroxide solution – it can cause irritation.
- • Students should take care when using the glowing splint which relights with the oxygen.
- • Remind students that hydrogen peroxide is made during respiration and can damage tissues so it has to be broken down quickly by the enzyme catalase.
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Textbook: Pages 7–10
📚 Specification Points
- 2.12 practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperatures
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a method that can be used to investigate the effect of temperature on enzyme activity
- explain the control variables in an investigation on the effect of temperature on enzyme activity
- interpret data from an investigation on the effect of temperature on enzyme activity and calculate rates of reaction.
🔑 Key Words
- control:the part of an experiment that is the standard to which the results can be compared
- control variable:a factor that is kept constant throughout an investigation
- variable:a factor in an investigation that can affect the outcome of the investigation
Lesson 11The Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Page 8
📚 Specification Points
- 2.13 understand how enzyme function can be affected by changes in pH altering the active site
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the effect of pH on acidity and alkalinity
- explain the effect of pH on enzyme activity
- interpret data to identify the optimum pH value for different enzymes.
🔑 Key Words
- alkali: a soluble base
- pH: the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Acids have a pH value of below 7. Alkalis have a pH value of above 7. A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral.
- base: hydroxides of alkaline metals and solutions of ammonia; bases neutralise acids by reacting with the free hydrogen ions in an acid solution
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not directly touch any of the substances.
- • Report and deal with any spillages according to your school’s guidelines and any local or national regulations.
- • How precise are the universal indicator solution readings ? (Answer: not as precise as pH probe as we do not get a reading in between whole numbers.)
- • Students should not directly touch any of the substances.
- • Students should report any spillages.
- • Students should wash hands after the practical.
- • Remind students that each substance should be clearly labelled and with its own pipette or spatula so there is no cross-contamination as students take some of the substance onto a dimple tile to test for pH.
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Textbook: Pages 8 and 11
Lab Book: Pages 10–12
📚 Specification Points
- 2.13 understand how enzyme function can be affected by changes in pH affecting the active site
- 2.14B practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in pH Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a method that can be used to investigate the effect of pH on enzyme activity
- explain the control variables in an investigation on the effect of pH on enzyme activity
- interpret data from an investigation on the effect of pH on enzyme activity and calculate rates of reaction.
🔑 Key Words
- accuracy: how close results are to a true value. For example, how well does a measuring instrument determine the variable it is meant to measure?
- anomalous result: a result that does not fit the pattern of other results
- precision: how consistent results are if measurements are repeated
- reliability: how consistently a method measures something. If a test is repeated and produces exactly the same result, it is 10⁰% reliable.
- validity: whether the results really measure what the investigation intends to measure. For example, does changing temperature really affect enzyme action, or are other factors involved?
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should not drink any of the liquids.
- • Students should wash any splashes quickly from skin. Enzymes/pepsin are irritants and can cause allergic reactions or asthma symptoms.
- • Students should wash off any chemical splashes immediately.
- • Remind students to take care with the buffer and enzyme solutions.
- • Students should not be tempted to extend the range of pH higher than 8 because strong alkalis break down proteins and this will give confusing and false data. You could even leave out pH 8 and just use the range 1–7.
Lesson 15Transport of Substances in and out of Cells→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 16–18
📚 Specification Points
- 2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify substances that move by diffusion, osmosis and active transport
- describe the difference between diffusion and osmosis
- explain the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
🔑 Key Words
- active transport: the pumping of particles across a membrane, usually against the concentration gradient. This process requires energy.
- concentrated: a concentrated solution contains many solute molecules in a certain volume of solvent
- concentration gradient: the difference in the concentration of molecules between two regions in a solution. There will be an overall movement of particles down a concentration gradient, from higher concentration to lower concentration.
- diffusion: the random movement and spreading of particles. There is a net (overall) diffusion of particles from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration .
- dilute: a dilute solution contains few solute molecules in a certain volume of solvent
- flaccid: when a cell has lost internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm no longer pushes out against the cell membrane (and cell wall, in plants)
- osmosis: the overall movement of solvent molecules in a solution across a partially permeable membrane, from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one
- partially permeable: describes a membrane that allows certain small particles through it but not larger ones
- turgid: when a cell has high internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm pushes out against the cell membrane (and cell wall, in plants)
Lesson 16Factors Affecting Diffusion→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 16–17
📚 Specification Points
- 2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient
- 2.17 practical: investigate diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use a model to investigate how cells get the substances they need
- describe and calculate surface area to volume ratios
- describe the effect of surface area to volume ratio on the time needed for a cell to obtain all the substances it needs.
🔑 Key Words
- surface area to volume ratio (SA : V):a measure of the surface area available for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume. It is shown as a ratio or calculated by dividing surface area by volume. A small cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a large cell. So, a small cell has more surface area for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume.
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection
- • Students should be careful to not touch the cubes with their fingers and rinse any splashes immediately
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 16
📚 Specification Points
- 2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells
- 2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain how the rate of diffusion into and out of cells depends on:
- surface area
- distance
- concentration gradient
- temperature
- explain how cells and exchange surfaces increase their efficiency by:increasing their surface area to volume ratiohaving shapes (e.g. flattened to decrease diffusion distance)maintaining concentration gradients.
- increasing their surface area to volume ratio
- having shapes (e.g. flattened to decrease diffusion distance)
- maintaining concentration gradients.
🔑 Key Words
- proportional: a relationship between two variables in which doubling of one variable doubles the other. This is also called a directly proportional relationship.
- inversely proportional: a relationship between two variables in which doubling one variable halves the other
Lesson 18Core Practical – Investigating Osmosis→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Page 157
Lab Book: Pages 19–22
📚 Specification Points
- 2.17 practical: investigate diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the effects of osmosis (on potato tuber tissue)
- calculate percentage gain and loss of mass.
🔑 Key Words
- percentage change:( change in values ÷initial value) × 10⁰
- validity:whether something does what it is intended to do. For example, a valid investigation is one in which control variables are properly controlled to produce results that answer the original question. Valid results are produced by a valid investigation. Valid conclusions are drawn from the results of a valid investigation (and only the results from that investigation).
- plasmolysed: when a plant cell lacks water and its cytoplasm and cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should not taste or drink any of the solutions or taste the potato.
- • Remind students that If they are using a cork borer to not hold the potato in the palm of their hand. Students should hold the potato at its top and press it firmly down onto the tile. Then press the cork borer down through the potato into the tile.
- • Remind students to use a knife with great care. Students must hold a knife or scalpel above the bench at all times.
Lesson 19Ways That Molecules Move→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 16–18 and 156
📚 Specification Points
- 2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells
- 2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use a microscope to observe cells
- identify where and why diffusion, osmosis and active transport occur in cells.
🔑 Key Words
- isotonic:a solution that has the same solute concentration as another solution
- root hair cell: specialised plant cell found on the outsides of roots. It has a cell extension (that looks like a hair) giving it a large surface area to volume ratio for efficient absorption of water and mineral ions.
Lesson 20Obtaining Energy Currency→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 12–13
📚 Specification Points
- 2.34 understand how the process of respiration produces ATP in living organisms
- 2.35 know that ATP provides energy for cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the word equation for aerobic respiration
- describe how ATP is produced
- explain the role of ATP in a cell.
🔑 Key Words
- aerobic respiration: chemical reaction in the mitochondria of cells, in which glucose is broken down using oxygen. The reaction releases energy from glucose.
- ATP: substance from which energy can be released very quickly. Short for adenosine triphosphate.
- glucose: sugar (carbohydrate) used for respiration. Its breakdown releases energy for a cell.
- metabolism: all the chemical reactions in an organism
- rate of respiration: the speed at which the reactions of respiration take place in cells
Lesson 21Respiration in Living Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 12–15
📚 Specification Points
- 2.36 describe the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
- 2.37 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for aerobic respiration in living organisms
- 2.38 know the word equation for anaerobic respiration in plants and in animals
- 2.39 practical: investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide and heat from respiring seeds or other suitable living organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the word equations for aerobic and anaerobic respiration in plants and animals
- recall the symbol equation for aerobic respiration
- explain why respiration increases temperature
- compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
🔑 Key Words
- anaerobic respiration:the release of energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen
- lactate:substance produced during anaerobic respiration in animals
- lactic acid:used as another term for lactate in word equations for anaerobic respiration
- oxygen debt:the additional oxygen needed after exercise in which anaerobic respiration has supplied a lot of energy
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection when handling disinfectant solutions.
- • Students should take care when boiling the peas.
Lesson 22Core Practical – Investigating Respiration→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Page 14
Lab Book: Pages 34−37
📚 Specification Points
- 2.39 practical: investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide and heat from respiring seeds or other suitable living organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide from respiring seeds or small animals
- distinguish between qualitative and quantitative tests
- understand the concept of an experimental control.
🔑 Key Words
- control: an experimental control is a repeat of an experiment in which the independent variable is not applied. Comparisons are made between the results and the control.
- hydrogen carbonate indicator: an indicator solution that is used to detect carbon dioxide. It is red when the concentration of carbon dioxide is the same as the atmosphere. It is yellow at high carbon dioxide concentrations and purple at low carbon dioxide concentrations.
- limewater: a clear, colourless solution that turns milky in the presence of carbon dioxide
- qualitative: data that is in words, such as colours
- quantitative: data that is in numbers
- sodium hydroxide solution: a solution that absorbs carbon dioxide
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
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Textbook: Pages 282–284
📚 Specification Points
- 5.5 understand the role of yeast in the production of food including bread
- 5.6 practical: investigate the role of anaerobic respiration by yeast in different conditions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide from yeast during anaerobic respiration
- explain why yeast is used to make bread dough rise and to produce alcoholic drinks
- identify quantitative data as being discrete or continuous.
🔑 Key Words
- discrete: data in which values can only have certain numbers is discrete. For example, shoe sizes are discrete. Compare this with foot length.
- continuous: data in which any value is possible within a certain range is continuous. For example, foot length is continuous. Compare this with shoe sizes.
- fermentation: using anaerobic respiration in microorganisms to produce useful products. However, the word is sometimes used to mean any metabolic process in microorganisms.
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 24Using Bacteria to Produce Food on an Industrial Scale→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 284–286
📚 Specification Points
- 5.7 understand the role of bacteria (Lactobacillus) in the production of yoghurt
- 5.8 understand the use of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable conditions in the fermenter, including aseptic precautions, nutrients, optimum temperature and pH, oxygenation and agitation, for the growth of microorganisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why Lactobacillus is used to make yoghurt
- describe the use of an industrial fermenter
- explain the conditions needed in an industrial fermenter.
🔑 Key Words
- aseptic: free from contamination by microorganisms
- fermenter: a large container that is used for fermentation by microorganisms
- starter culture: microorganisms that are used to start the fermentation process
- sterile: free from contamination by microorganisms
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Aseptic precautions
- What is used to make aseptic conditions inside a fermenter?
- aseptic precautions
Lesson 27Our Survival Depends on the Sun→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 5–6 and 135–138
📚 Specification Points
- 2.18 understand the process of photosynthesis and its importance in the conversion of light energy to chemical energy
- 2.19 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for photosynthesis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the reactants and products for photosynthesis
- recall the word and symbol equations for photosynthesis
- describe the reaction of photosynthesis and its importance.
🔑 Key Words
- biomass: the total mass of organic matter in organisms
- chlorosis: yellowing of plant leaves as a result of mineral deficiency or infection
- stomata (singular, stoma): small openings on the lower surface of a leaf through which gases can diffuse
- xylem: tissue that is found in plant leaves, stems and roots and is responsible for the transport of water and mineral ions from the roots to other parts of the plant
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
Lesson 28Core Practical – Factors that Affect Photosynthesis→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 142–144 and 149–151
Lab Book: Pages 25–26
📚 Specification Points
- 2.20 understand how varying carbon dioxide concentration, light intensity and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis
- 2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, showing the evolution of oxygen from a water plant
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis
- analyse data from investigations into how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis
- explain how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis.
🔑 Key Words
- limiting factor: any factor that, when not available in sufficient amounts, slows down the rate of a reaction; the factor that is in shortest supply will be the main limiting factor
- independent variable: the condition you change
- dependent variable: the variable that depends on the condition you change
- control variable: a variable that does not change
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout the practical.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 29Core Practical – The Structure of a Leaf→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 136–140
Lab Book: Pages 29–30
📚 Specification Points
- 2.21 describe the structure of the leaf and explain how it is adapted for photosynthesis
- 2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, the production of starch and the requirements of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll
🎯 Learning Objectives
- label a diagram of a cross-section of a leaf
- describe the functions of the different tissues in a leaf
- explain how the structure of a leaf adapts it for its function of photosynthesis.
🔑 Key Words
- palisade mesophyll: column-shaped cells near the upper surface of the leaf, packed with chloroplasts for photosynthesis
- spongy mesophyll: loosely packed cells with air spaces to allow gas diffusion
- epidermis: outer layer of cells on the leaf surface
- cuticle: waxy waterproof layer on the leaf surface that reduces water loss
- stomata: small pores on the underside of a leaf that allow gas exchange
- vascular bundle: group of xylem and phloem vessels in a leaf
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care with slides and coverslips. They break easily and can be sharp.
- • There are no safety considerations to consider with setting up this practical.
Lesson 30Core Practical – Photosynthesis Investigations→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 136–138
Lab Book: Pages 27−30
📚 Specification Points
- 2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, the production of starch and the requirements of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll
🎯 Learning Objectives
- test variegated leaves for the presence of starch
- test leaves that have been left in the light and dark for the presence of starch
- test leaves that have been deprived of carbon dioxide for the presence of starch.
🔑 Key Words
- iodine test: a test for starch; iodine solution turns blue-black in the presence of starch
- destarching: leaving a plant in the dark so it uses up its starch reserves
- chlorophyll: green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis
- variegated: a leaf with areas of green and white, where white areas lack chlorophyll
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with ethanol.
- Take care with hot water.
- Remember that ethanol is flammable. Keep it away from flames.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Take care with staining solutions; they can stain skin and clothing. Wash off splashes immediately.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 31Increasing the Growth of Plants→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 145–147, 207–208, 217–218
📚 Specification Points
- 2.22 understand that plants require mineral ions for growth, and that magnesium ions are needed for chlorophyll and nitrate ions are needed for amino acids
- 4.17 understand the biological consequences of eutrophication caused by leached minerals from fertiliser
- 5.3 understand how the use of fertiliser can increase crop yield
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand how plants obtain the mineral ions, essential for growth, from the soil via roots
- explain the role of magnesium ions and nitrate ions in the growth of plants
- identify mineral ion deficiencies in plants showing symptoms of poor growth
- explain how fertilisers can increase crop yield
- describe how minerals leached from excess fertiliser and/or manure may cause eutrophication.
🔑 Key Words
- eutrophication: a process during which nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates enter water courses and promote an increase in algae that eventually leads to depletion of dissolved oxygen
- macronutrients: nutrients that are required in large amounts
- micronutrients: nutrients that are required in small amounts
Lesson 32Increasing Yield Using Glasshouses→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 147 and 206–207
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain crops
- 5.2 understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand that glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase yield for some crops
- identify how factors can be controlled in a polythene tunnel and glasshouse
- explain the effects of increasing carbon dioxide and temperature on the growth of plants in glasshouse
- understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses.
🔑 Key Words
- glasshouse: an enclosed structure made of glass or plastic used to control growing conditions
- polythene tunnel: a tunnel covered in clear polythene used to increase crop yield
- yield: the amount of useful product obtained from a crop
- photosynthesis rate: the speed at which a plant converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose using light energy
Lesson 33Gas Exchange in a Leaf→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 139–142, 159 and 161–162
📚 Specification Points
- 2.40B understand the role of diffusion in gas exchange Bio only
- 2.41B understand gas exchange (of carbon dioxide and oxygen) in relation to respiration and photosynthesis Bio only
- 2.44B understand how respiration continues during the day and night, but that the net exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen depends on the intensity of light Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the gases that enter and leave a leaf by diffusion
- explain that the net flow of gases into or from a leaf depends on the relative rates of photosynthesis and respiration
- interpret and explain data related to net diffusion of gases under different environmental conditions.
🔑 Key Words
- gas exchange: the movement of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between an organism and its environment
- diffusion: the net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
- net gas exchange: the overall balance of gases entering and leaving an organism
Lesson 34The Role of Stomata→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 161
📚 Specification Points
- 2.42B understand how the structure of the leaf is adapted for gas exchange Bio only
- 2.43B describe the role of stomata in gas exchange Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the function of different structures within the leaf
- explain how the leaf structures allow for gas exchange
- explain how stomata open and close and how this affects gas exchange.
🔑 Key Words
- stomata: small pores found mainly on the underside of a leaf that allow gas exchange
- guard cells: pairs of cells that surround each stoma and control its opening and closing
- transpiration: the loss of water vapour from the surface of a plant, mainly through stomata
- wilting: the drooping of a plant when water loss exceeds water uptake
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection when handling solutions.
Lesson 35Core Practical – Investigating Gas Exchange→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 18, 141–142 and 161
Lab Book: Pages 38−41
📚 Specification Points
- 2.45B practical: investigate the effect of light on net gas exchange from a leaf, using hydrogen-carbonate indicator Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain how hydrogen carbonate indicator solution can be used to show net gas exchange of a plant or leaf
- describe and evaluate the method used to investigate net gas exchange from a plant or leaf using hydrogen carbonate indicator solution
- evaluate the data from an investigation using hydrogen carbonate indicator solution to show net gas exchange.
🔑 Key Words
- gas exchange: the physical process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a surface, which usually involves oxygen and carbon dioxide moving in opposite directions to each other; also called gaseous exchange
- net: what remains from the whole after certain deductions have been made.
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with the indicator solution.
- Take care with glassware.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
Lesson 37Diffusion in Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 16−18, 70−71 and 160
📚 Specification Points
- 2.51 understand why simple, unicellular organisms can rely on diffusion for movement of substances in and out of the cell
- 2.52 understand the need for a transport system in multicellular organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the definition of diffusion
- calculate surface area to volume ratios for small and large objects
- explain why some organisms need a transport system, whereas others do not.
🔑 Key Words
- blood vessel: any tube that carries blood in the circulatory system
- capillary: narrowest type of blood vessel in the circulatory system
- circulatory system: organ system in animals that uses blood to carry substances to and from cells in tissues
- diffusion: the random movement and spreading of particles; there is a net (overall) diffusion of particles from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration
- phloem tube: tube that carries sugars (and other substances for growth and repair) around a plant
- surface area to volume ratio (SA : V): a measure of the surface area available for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume. It is shown as a ratio or calculated by dividing surface area by volume. A small cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a large cell. So, a small cell has more surface area for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume
- vascular bundle: collection of both xylem vessels and phloem tubes in a plant
- xylem vessel: tube that carries water (and dissolved mineral ions) up through a plant
Lesson 38Water Uptake→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 18 and 152−158
📚 Specification Points
- 2.55B understand how water is absorbed by root hair cells Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the definition of osmosis
- explain the adaptations of roots and root hair cells
- explain that water enters the roots by osmosis across a partially permeable membrane.
🔑 Key Words
- flaccid: when a cell has lost internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm no longer pushes out against the cell membrane (and cell wall, in plants)
- osmosis: the overall movement of solvent molecules in a solution across a partially permeable membrane, from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one
- plasmolysed: when a cell lacks so much water that its cytoplasm and cell membrane shrink. In plants, the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall
- turgid: when a cell has high internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm pushes out against the cell membrane (and cell wall, in plants)
- turgor: the state a plant is in when its cells are turgid
- water potential: level of freedom of water molecules in a solution; in pure water, the molecules are totally free to move, and so pure water has the highest water potential
Lesson 39Transport of Water in Plants→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 158–161
📚 Specification Points
- 2.54 describe the role of xylem in transporting water and mineral ions from the roots to other parts of the plant
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall why plants need water and mineral ions
- describe the locations and role of xylem vessels in the transport of water and mineral ions
- describe the structural adaptations of xylem.
🔑 Key Words
- lignin: woody substance used to strengthen the walls of xylem vessels
- lumen: inside of a tube in biology
- phloem tube: tube that carries sugars (and other substances for growth and repair) around a plant
- vascular bundle: collection of xylem vessels and phloem tubes in a plant
- xylem vessel: tube that carries water (and dissolved mineral ions) up through a plant
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Be careful using concentrated food dyes, which can stain clothes and skin.
- • Be very careful with glass slides and coverslips. They break easily and can be sharp. Tell your teacher immediately if you break anything.
- • Students should use toothpicks rather than traditional mounted needles to lower the coverslips. This reduces the risk of injury from sharp needles.
- • Alternatives (e.g. if time is short), which do not require a worksheet: give students pre-prepared slides give students commercially purchased slides that show xylem vessels use a microscope with a video camera attachment to show xylem vessels on slides.
- • Ensure that cavity slides are used for this practical and not flat ones (the plant material is generally too thick for flat slides, and so the coverslips will break).
Lesson 40The Role of Transpiration→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 159–160
📚 Specification Points
- 2.56B understand that transpiration is the evaporation of water from the surface of a plant Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of the cross-section of a leaf
- recall that the evaporation of water from the surface of a leaf is transpiration and that this leads to the movement of water into and through a plant
- describe the role of the spongy mesophyll and stomata in transpiration.
🔑 Key Words
- evaporation: when a liquid changes into a gas as energy is added (e.g. liquid water turns into water vapour when heated)
- transpiration: evaporation of water from the surface of a plant
- transpirational pull: upward force in the xylem vessels created by loss of water from the leaves by evaporation
- transpiration stream: the flow of water through the roots, up through the stem and out through the leaves
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take great care if using glass tubing, which can easily break.
Lesson 41Factors Affecting Transpiration→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 161−163
📚 Specification Points
- 2.57B understand how the rate of transpiration is affected by changes in humidity, wind speed, temperature and light intensity Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe transpiration
- identify factors that increase and decrease the rate of transpiration
- explain how humidity, wind speed, temperature and light intensity affect the rate of transpiration.
🔑 Key Words
- humidity:the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
- kinetic energy:energy present in moving particles
- potometer:apparatus to measure the rate of transpiration
- rate of transpiration:the speed at which transpiration occurs
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take great care using glass tubing, which can easily break.
Lesson 42Core Practical – Investigating Transpiration→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 162–163
Lab Book: Pages 48–52
📚 Specification Points
- 2.58B practical: investigate the role of environmental factors in determining the rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe ways in which the rate of transpiration can be measured
- explain how to use a potometer to investigate the effects of different factors on the rate of transpiration
- calculate percentage loss of mass.
🔑 Key Words
- transpiration: the loss of water vapour from a plant through the stomata
- potometer: a piece of apparatus used to measure the rate of water uptake (as an estimate of transpiration)
- environmental factors: conditions such as light intensity, temperature, humidity and wind speed that affect transpiration rate
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with pushing the stem into the potometer. Do not use excessive force, since this may break the tubing.
- Report any spills of water immediately to the teacher.
Lesson 43Translocation in Phloem Tissue→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 140–160
📚 Specification Points
- 2.53 describe the role of phloem in transporting sucrose and amino acids between the leaves and other parts of the plant
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall where sugars are made in a plant
- describe the structure of phloem and the adaptations for transport
- describe the role of phloem in transporting sucrose and amino acids.
🔑 Key Words
- phloem tissue: tissue composed of living tubes that transports organic substances such as sucrose and amino acids around the plant
- translocation: the process by which dissolved sucrose and other organic molecules are transported in phloem tissue
Lesson 44Tropic Responses of Plants to Stimuli→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 168–169
📚 Specification Points
- 2.83 understand that plants respond to stimuli
- 2.84 describe the geotropic and phototropic responses of roots and stems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms tropism, tropic response
- describe geotropic and phototropic responses
- explain how the tropic responses of shoots and roots help a plant’s survival.
🔑 Key Words
- clinostat:a platform that slowly turns and is used in experiments on plant tropisms
- geotropism:movement or growth of part of a plant in response to the force of gravity
- gravitropism:another term for geotropism
- phototropism:movement or growth of part of a plant in response to light
- stimulus:a change in the internal or external environment detected by an organism
- tropic response:a response in which part of an organism moves or grows towards or away from a stimulus
- tropism:another term for tropic response
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Check on the safety of any seeds chosen in terms of toxicity and any possible allergic reactions.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
Lesson 45The Role of Auxin in Tropic Responses→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 169–172
📚 Specification Points
- 2.85 understand the role of auxin in the phototropic response of stems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the phototropic response of plants
- describe the phototropic response as a hormonal response to the stimulus of light
- explain how auxin causes the phototropic response in stems.
🔑 Key Words
- auxin: a plant hormone or plant growth substance that controls cell elongation and plays a role in plant shoots' phototropic response
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Check on the safety of any seeds chosen in terms of toxicity and any possible allergic reactions.
- Take care with sharp instruments. Cut away from the body. Follow dissection safety guidelines.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 161–163, 304–306
Lab Book: Pages 48–52
📚 Specification Points
- 2.58B practical: investigate the role of environmental factors in determining the rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- present investigation data using appropriate graphs
- analyse investigation data by calculating means and spotting anomalous results
- evaluate the validity, accuracy and reliability of investigation data.
🔑 Key Words
- accuracy: how close a reading is to the true value
- anomalous result: reading that does not match others in a group or a pattern
- bar chart: compares groups of qualitative data
- continuous data: data in which any value is possible within a certain range is continuous, e.g. foot length is continuous; compare this with shoe sizes
- control variable: variable that you try to stop from changing
- dependent variable: variable that is measured
- discrete: data in which values can only have certain numbers is discrete, e.g. shoe sizes are discrete; compare this with foot length
- experimental control: an experimental control is a repeat of an experiment in which the independent variable is not applied; comparisons are made between the results and the control
- histogram: compares frequencies in groups made from continuous data
- independent variable: variable that is changed by the investigator
- line graph: usually shows how a variable changes with time
- line of best fit: line drawn through the middle of a set of points
- mean: calculation to estimate the middle value of a data set
- outlier: another term for an anomalous result
- precision: how close repeated readings are to each other
- qualitative: data that is in words, such as colours
- quantitative: data that is in numbers
- randomerror: occasional mistake in making a measurement
- reliable: data that contains similar repeated measurements
- resolution: degree of accuracy obtained from a measuring device
- scatter graph: shows a relationship (link) between two variables
- systematicerror: mistake that affects all readings in a data set
- valid: whether something does what it is intended to do, e.g. a valid investigation is one in which control variables are properly controlled to produce results that answer the original question. Valid results are produced by a valid investigation. Valid conclusions are drawn from the results of a valid investigation (and only the results from that investigation)
Lesson 49A Balanced Diet→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 52–57
📚 Specification Points
- 2.24 understand that a balanced diet should include appropriate proportions of carbohydrate, protein, lipid, vitamins, minerals, water and dietary fibre
- 2.25 identify the sources and describe the functions of carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils), vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and iron, water and dietary fibre as components of the diet
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the components of a balanced diet
- identify sources of the different components of a balanced diet
- describe the functions of the different components of a balanced diet.
🔑 Key Words
- adipose tissue: a tissue layer under the skin in which fats are stored
- antioxidant: a chemical, such as some vitamins, which stops a chemical reaction called oxidation occurring in cells, thus improving a person’s health
- balanced diet: a diet made up of all the required food groups, in sufficient amounts and the correct proportions to maintain health
- deficiency disease: a disease caused by a lack of certain foods; for example, lack of vitamin C
- egestion: the removal of undigested waste from the body as faeces
- proportion: parts of a substance in relation to the whole
Lesson 50Energy Requirements→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 52–57 and 59–60
📚 Specification Points
- 2.26 understand how energy requirements vary with activity levels, age and pregnancy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the need to include appropriate proportions of the different components of a balanced diet
- carry out calculations on energy in various foods and diets
- analyse and evaluate data on energy requirements for different people
- understand how diet plans vary according to nutritional requirements.
🔑 Key Words
- kwashiorkor: a disease caused by a deficiency of protein in the diet
- malnutrition: a condition when a person’s diet does not contain the correct amount of nutrients; it can refer to undernutrition (not receiving enough nutrients) and overnutrition (eating more nutrients than are needed)
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 59–61
Lab Book: Pages 31–33
📚 Specification Points
- 2.33B practical: investigate the energy content in a food sample Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain how the energy content of food can be measured
- identify the variables from the investigation and explain how they can be controlled
- compare the method used in the school laboratory to more sophisticated methods.
🔑 Key Words
- calorimeter: a scientific instrument that can be used to find the amount of energy in a sample of food
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Take care with the Bunsen burner.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 52The Human Alimentary Canal→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 62–66
📚 Specification Points
- 2.27 describe the structure and function of the human alimentary canal, including the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum and ileum), large intestine (colon and rectum) and pancreas
- 2.28 understand how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- label the components of the human digestive system
- describe the function of the components of the human alimentary canal
- explain how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis.
🔑 Key Words
- alimentary canal: the gut or digestive tract; consists of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus
- bolus: ball of food
- digestion: breaking down of large molecules to smaller, soluble molecules
- digestive system: organ system for digesting food; consists of the alimentary canal plus the salivary glands, liver and pancreas
- enzyme: biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions in the body
- gut: alimentary canal or digestive tract
- peristalsis: a series of wave-like muscle contractions that move substances through tubes in the body e.g. moving food along the alimentary canal
Lesson 53Core Practical – The Process of Digestion→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 64–65
Lab Book: Pages 15–16
📚 Specification Points
- 2.17 practical: investigate diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems
- 2.29 understand the role of digestive enzymes, including the digestion of starch to glucose by amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to amino acids by proteases and the digestion of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the role of enzymes in digestion
- explain the digestion reactions catalysed by amylase, maltase, proteases and lipases
- explain why starch, proteins and lipids must be digested.
🔑 Key Words
- catabolic: a type of metabolic reaction where large molecules are broken down to smaller molecules
- gastric: to do with the stomach
- metabolic: to do with metabolism; it involves all the chemical reactions in cells that keep living organisms alive
- monomer: smaller units from which polymer molecules are made
- polymer: large molecules made from many monomers joined together; examples include proteins, starch, glycogen, cellulose and nucleic acids
- product: molecules produced during a reaction
- reactant: molecules taking part in a reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not drink any of the solutions.
- • Take care with hot water in the water bath.
- • Remember that Benedict’s solution can be harmful to skin and eyes.
Lesson 54Absorption of Digested Food→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 65–66
📚 Specification Points
- 2.30 understand that bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder
- 2.31 understand the role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and emulsifying lipids
- 2.32 understand how the small intestine is adapted for absorption, including the structure of a villus
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder
- explain the role of bile in digestion
- describe the structure of the small intestine, including villi
- explain how the structure of the small intestine helps and increase the absorption of digested food.
🔑 Key Words
- bilirubin: made from old red blood and passed out of the body in faeces
- cholesterol: a type of lipid; essential for making nerve cells, bile salts and strengthening cell membranes; however, too much in the blood may increase the risk of heart disease
- chyme: an acid mixture of partly digested food, stomach acid and pepsin
- duct: a tube in the body
- emulsification: spreading small droplets of one liquid in another liquid
- hormone: a chemical messenger
- microvilli: small projections on the cell surface membrane of some cells, which increase the surface area
- villi: finger-like projections in the wall of the ileum (small intestine), which increase the surface area for absorption of digested food
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Urea is toxic and is
- Urea is toxic and is removed from the
Lesson 55The Process of Ventilation→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 39–42
📚 Specification Points
- 2.46 describe the structure of the thorax, including the ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and pleural membranes
- 2.47 understand the role of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm in ventilation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know the structures involved in ventilation (breathing)
- describe the functions of the different structures involved in ventilation
- explain the process of inhalation (breathing in) and exhalation (breathing out).
🔑 Key Words
- bronchi: part of the airways; they are fine branching tubes leading from the trachea into the lungs
- bronchioles: part of the airways; they are very fine branching tubes leading from the bronchi to the alveoli
- diaphragm: fibrous and muscular sheet of tissue that divides the thorax from the abdomen; its movements change the volume of the thorax and bring about ventilation
- intercostal muscles: muscles between the ribs; contraction of the muscles raises the ribcage up and out for inhalation
- thorax: chest
- trachea: airway; the tube carrying inspired air from the nose/mouth to the bronchi, each of which supplies a lung; the trachea also carries expired air from the lungs to the nose/mouth
Lesson 57The Effects of Smoking on the Body→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 45–49
📚 Specification Points
- 2.49 understand the biological consequences of smoking in relation to the lungs and the circulatory system, including coronary heart disease
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the effects of smoking on the lungs and circulatory system
- evaluate data on the incidence of coronary heart disease in smokers
- explain the effects of cardiovascular disease (CVD) on the body.
🔑 Key Words
- bronchitis: inflammation of the bronchi/airways
- carcinogenic: can cause cancer
- chronic: illness that is long-lasting and incurable but may be treated
- correlation: the relationship between two or more things
- emphysema: lung disease caused by loss of alveoli; leads to breathlessness and extreme fatigue
- epidemiologist: a person who studies the incidence, distribution and control of diseases
- incidence: occurrence; rate or frequency of something, e.g. number of people per 100000 population with a disease
- pulmonary: relating to the lungs
- tumour: abnormal growth of tissue/lump of tissue/cells, which leads to a swelling/lump
Lesson 59Components of Blood→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 78–80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.59 describe the composition of the blood: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
- 2.60 understand the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat energy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- list and identify blood components
- recall the functions of blood components
- explain the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat energy.
🔑 Key Words
- endocrine gland: gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood
- erythrocyte: another term for red blood cell
- haemoglobin: substance in red blood cells that can combine with oxygen
- hormone: a substance that can trigger changes in cells when they detect it
- leucocyte: another term for white blood cell
- lymphocyte: type of white blood cell that produces antibodies
- phagocyte: type of white blood cell that can engulf pathogens
- urea: a waste product formed from the breakdown of amino acids
Lesson 61The Immune System→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 79–80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.62 understand how the immune system responds to disease using white blood cells, illustrated by phagocytes ingesting pathogens and lymphocytes releasing antibodies specific to the pathogen
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the role of phagocytes and lymphocytes
- explain the role of phagocytes in engulfing pathogens
- explain the role of lymphocytes in the production of antibodies to a specific pathogen.
🔑 Key Words
- antibody:protein produced by lymphocytes in response to a particular antigen
- antigen: protein marker found on the surface of cells
- complementary: term used in biology to describe two things that fit together
- immune response: response by the immune system (such as a release of antibodies)
- immune system: body system that protects against diseases caused by pathogens
- phagocytosis:the process during which phagocytes ingest and destroy pathogens
Lesson 62The Role of Vaccination→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 79–80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.63B understand how vaccination results in the manufacture of memory cells,which enable future antibody production to the pathogen to occur sooner, faster and in greater quantity Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how memory lymphocytes are produced when an antigen is encountered
- describe what vaccines are
- explain how the body responds to vaccination and what happens if the pathogen is subsequently encountered.
🔑 Key Words
- artificial immunity: being immune to a disease due to receiving a vaccine
- immune: unaffected by something; if you are immune to a disease, you cannot get it
- infectious disease: a disease caused by a pathogen from outside the body
- memory cell: type of long-lasting lymphocyte produced when a person is infected with a pathogen; they are important in a secondary immune response
- natural immunity: being immune to a disease because you have had the disease
- primary immune response: the first response by the immune system to certain antigens
- secondary immune response: the response by the immune system after encountering antigens for a second time
- vaccination: the process of giving someone a vaccine
- vaccine: substance containing dead or weakened pathogens, or parts of pathogens; it is used to make someone immune to a disease
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Thanks to vaccines, many dangerous infectious diseases are much less common than
Lesson 63The Structure and Function of the Heart→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 73–75
📚 Specification Points
- 2.65 describe the structure of the heart and how it functions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the structure of the heart and identify its major parts
- describe how the heart pumps and the flow of blood through it
- describe the differences in blood oxygenation on different sides of the heart and in the different blood vessels.
🔑 Key Words
- aorta: major artery leading out of the heart, carrying blood to most of the body
- artery: blood vessel that transports blood away from the heart
- atrium: upper chamber in the heart that receives blood from the veins
- bicuspid valve: valve between the left atrium and left ventricle
- cardiac muscle: specialised muscle tissue found in the walls of the heart
- circulatory system: system that moves blood through the body; it consists of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries and blood
- coronary artery: artery supplying the cardiac muscle with blood
- double circulatory system: circulatory system in which blood flows through the heart twice
- heartbeat: a complete cycle of the heart’s pumping, from when the atria are full of blood until the next time the atria are full
- heart rate: number of heartbeats in a unit of time, usually per minute (beats/min)
- heart valve: flap of tissue between chambers in the heart that stops blood flowing in the wrong direction when the heart muscle contracts
- pulmonary artery: blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
- pulmonary vein: blood vessel carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
- pulse: shockwave that travels through the walls of arteries leading from the heart
- semi-lunar valve: valve between a ventricle and an artery leaving the heart
- septum: muscular wall that separates the heart into two halves and prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
- tricuspid valve: valve between the right atrium and right ventricle
- vein: blood vessel that transports blood towards the heart
- vena cava: major vein leading to the heart, carrying blood back from most of the body (and divided into two parts)
- ventricle: lower chamber in the heart that pumps blood out into the arteries
Lesson 64Factors Affecting the Heart→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–76
📚 Specification Points
- 2.66 explain how the heart rate changes during exercise and under the influence of adrenaline
- 2.67 understand how factors may increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify factors that can change heart rate
- explain why heart rate increases during exercise and in response to adrenaline
- describe coronary heart disease
- explain why different factors increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease.
🔑 Key Words
- adrenal gland: endocrine gland found on top of each kidney, which releases adrenaline
- adrenaline: hormone released into the blood from the adrenal glands in response to fright or shock (also called epinephrine)
- atherosclerosis: the deposition of fatty substances inside blood vessels
- endocrine gland: organ that releases a hormone into the blood (e.g. adrenal gland)
- hormone: a substance that can trigger changes in certain cells when they detect it
- impulse: electrical signal carried by nerve cells
- medulla: part of the brain that controls heart rate
- pacemaker: something that generates electrical impulses to cause a heartbeat
- target cell: cell that is affected by a hormone
Lesson 65The Structure and Function of Blood Vessels→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 76–77
📚 Specification Points
- 2.68 understand how the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries relate to their function
- 2.69 understand the general structure of the circulation system, including the blood vessels to and from the heart and lungs, liver and kidneys
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the functions of arteries, veins and capillaries
- explain how the structures of arteries, veins and capillaries are adapted for their functions
- recall the names and positions of major blood vessels in the circulatory system.
🔑 Key Words
- hepatic artery: takes blood from the aorta to the liver
- hepatic portal vein: carries blood from the intestines to the liver
- hepatic vein: takes blood from the liver to the vena cava
- lumen: the space in a tube in which a fluid flows
- mesenteric artery: carries blood from the aorta to the intestines
- renal artery: carries blood from the aorta to the kidneys
- renal vein: carries blood from the kidneys to the vena cava
- tissue fluid: a fluid that forms from blood plasma, and which surrounds all cells
Lesson 67Excretory Products in Plants and Animals→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 104–106, 159, 161
📚 Specification Points
- 2.70 understand the origin of carbon dioxide and oxygen as waste products of metabolism and their loss from the stomata of a leaf
- 2.71 know the excretory products of the lungs, kidneys and skin (organs of excretion)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the waste products made by plants and animals
- describe the systems that plants and animals use for excretion
- explain why excretion is an essential life process.
🔑 Key Words
- blood plasma: liquid part of the blood; blood cells are suspended in it; it also contains and carries dissolved nutrients, carbon dioxide, waste products and hormones, and blood proteins that cause clotting when a blood vessel is damaged
- by-product: a secondary product made during a reaction
- deamination: chemical reaction that removes the amino group (NH2) from amino acids
- tissue fluid: a fluid that forms from blood plasma, and which surrounds all cells
- urea: nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) chemical, formula = (NH2)2CO
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with indicator solution; report any spillages.
- Handle glassware carefully to avoid breakages.
- Handle the snails carefully as they are alive.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
- ammonia, which is very alkaline and toxic.
- Ammonia is changed, in the liver, to urea. This is less toxic but still has to
- Three from: More carbon dioxide breathed out (1) because your muscle cells are carrying out more aerobic respiration (1) to release more energy/make more ATP for your leg muscles to contract (1). Carbon dioxide is the by-product/waste product from respiration (1). It is acidic and toxic and has to be removed (1).
- Two from: Less carbon dioxide breathed out (1) because your muscles are relaxed and are carrying out less aerobic respiration (1) so less of the toxic and acidic by-product, carbon dioxide, is produced (1).
Lesson 68The Structure of the Urinary System→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 104–107
📚 Specification Points
- 2.72B understand how the kidney carries out its roles of excretion and osmoregulation Bio only
- 2.73B describe the structure of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- label the components of the urinary system
- explain the role of the kidneys in osmoregulation
- describe the composition of urine
- outline how urine is produced, stored and excreted from the body.
🔑 Key Words
- organ: collection of tissues that work together to perform a specific function or set of functions
- sphincter: ring-shaped muscle that relaxes to open a passage or contracts to close a passage in the body
- system: group of organs that work together
- tissue: collection of cells that work together to perform a specific function
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care using a scalpel.
- • Wear gloves when handling the kidney.
Lesson 69The Nephron and Ultrafiltration→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 108–110
📚 Specification Points
- 2.74B describe the structure of a nephron, including the Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus, convoluted tubules, loop of Henle and collecting duct Bio only
- 2.75B describe ultrafiltration in the Bowman’s capsule and the composition of the glomerular filtrate Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of the nephron
- explain the process of ultrafiltration
- compare the composition of blood in the glomerulus with that of the filtrate in the proximal convoluted tubule.
🔑 Key Words
- afferent: carrying towards
- arteriole: type of blood vessel that links arteries and capillaries
- efferent: carrying away from
- tubules: very small tubes
Lesson 71Production of Urine→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 109–111
📚 Specification Points
- 2.78B describe the role of ADH in regulating the water content of the blood Bio only
- 2.79B understand that urine contains water, urea and ions Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall how urine is produced in a nephron
- describe the composition of urine
- explain the effect of ADH on the collecting duct.
🔑 Key Words
- aquaporins: protein channels that allow water to pass through them
- dehydrated: lacking in water
- overhydrated: having too much water
- renal: to do with the kidney(s)
- urination: passing urine out of the body
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- happens in the liver. Urea is a toxic by-product of metabolism and has to be
Lesson 72ADH and Osmoregulation→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 104–105 and 111
📚 Specification Points
- 2.79B understand that urine contains water, urea and ions Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe where ADH is produced and when it is released
- explain the ADH response for dehydration and high levels of hydration
- evaluate data and graphs on urine volume and concentration in different conditions.
🔑 Key Words
- hypothalamus: region of the brain
- negative feedback: mechanism to redress a change in the body
- peptide: small protein / short chain of amino acids
- pituitary gland: an endocrine gland at the base of the brain; also called the hypophysis
Lesson 73What is Homeostasis and Why is it Important?→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 99, 104–105, 111–113
📚 Specification Points
- 2.80 understand how organisms are able to respond to changes in their environment
- 2.81 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment, and that body water content and body temperature are both examples of homeostasis
- 2.82 understand that a co-ordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effector
- 2.86 describe how nervous and hormonal communication control responses and understand the differences between the two systems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify ways organisms can respond to their environment
- explain why homeostasis is important for maintaining a constant internal environment
- explain that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effector.
🔑 Key Words
- CNS: central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord)
- ectotherm: animal whose body temperature varies with that of the environment; can adjust their temperature by seeking sunlight or shade
- endotherm: animal whose body temperature can be maintained by its metabolism; can generate heat from within
- extremities: fingers and toes, ear tips
- neurone: nerve cell
- poikilotherm: organism with variable body temperature
- synapse: gap between neurones
Lesson 74The Nervous System→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 84–87
📚 Specification Points
- 2.87 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and is linked to sense organs by nerves
- 2.88 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid responses
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
- describe a reflex arc as a rapid response that protects the body
- explain how the stimulation of a receptor leads to a rapid response in the body.
🔑 Key Words
- peripheral: around the edge – in the nervous system it means the nerves connecting sense organs and effectors to the CNS
- reflex action: involuntary action in response to a stimulus
- response: a reaction to something
Lesson 75The Role of a Synapse→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 93–97
📚 Specification Points
- 2.89 understand the role of neurotransmitters at synapses
- 2.90 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe synapses as gaps between neurones
- explain the role of neurotransmitters at a synapse
- describe the structure of a reflex arc.
🔑 Key Words
- cleft: gap
- exocytosis: active process that allows molecules to pass out of a cell; a vesicle containing the molecules fuses with the cell surface membrane
- neurotransmitter: chemical messenger used by the nervous system
- nm: nanometre: 1000 nm = 1 micrometre; 1 million nm = 1 mm
- postsynaptic: after the synapse
- presynaptic: before the synapse
- vesicle: tiny sac of cell membrane
Lesson 76The Structure of the Eye→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 87–90, 95 and 96
📚 Specification Points
- 2.91 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the eye as a receptor
- label the structures of the eye
- describe the function of the structures in the eye.
🔑 Key Words
- aqueous humour: a fluid found between the cornea and the lens
- conjunctiva: a thin, transparent layer of cells that lines the eyelids and covers the cornea
- photoreceptor: sense receptor that is sensitive to light, of which there are two types: rods and cones
- vitreous humour: a jelly-like substance found behind the lens, which maintains the shape of the eyeball
Lesson 78Thermoregulation→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 112–115
📚 Specification Points
- 2.93 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the mechanisms used for thermoregulation
- describe how sweating and vasodilation are used to reduce body temperature
- describe how vasoconstriction is used to increase body temperature.
🔑 Key Words
- latent heat of vaporisation: heat energy that is required for evaporation
- thermoregulation: a process that takes place to regulate body temperature
- vasoconstriction: narrowing of blood vessels in the skin to reduce heat loss
- vasodilation: widening of blood vessels in the skin to increase heat loss
Lesson 79Chemical Coordination→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 98–103
📚 Specification Points
- 2.94 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen
- 2.95B understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH, FSH and LH Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know the main endocrine glands of the human body and the hormones they produce
- describe the function of adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen
- explain the source, role and effects of ADH, FSH and LH.
🔑 Key Words
- diabetes (mellitus): a condition that occurs when a person does not secrete sufficient insulin to lower their blood glucose levels, or their cells do not respond to insulin to lower blood glucose levels; also called sugar diabetes
Lesson 81Reproduction→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 118–121 and 126–128
📚 Specification Points
- 3.1 understand the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
- 3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
- describe the process of fertilisation
- explain the stages involved in the production of an embryo.
🔑 Key Words
- diploid: a cell that has two sets of chromosomes; in humans the diploid number is 46
- embryo: a ball of cells that has formed after the zygote starts to divide
- fertilisation: fusion of a male and a female gamete
- fetus: an unborn offspring that develops from an embryo (in humans, from 9 weeks onwards)
- gametes: specialised sex cells that fuse during fertilisation in sexual reproduction
- haploid: a cell that has one set of chromosomes; in humans the haploid number is 23
- meiosis: a type of cell division which gives rise to haploid gametes
- mitosis: a type of cell division after which genetically identical cells are produced
- variation: differences in genetic makeup and/or features in an organism
- zygote: the single diploid cell that is formed after fertilisation
Lesson 82Reproduction in Plants→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 174–181
📚 Specification Points
- 3.3 describe the structures of an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower and explain how each is adapted for pollination
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that pollination is part of sexual reproduction
- describe the structures and functions for insect- and wind-pollinated flowers
- explain how pollination occurs for insect- or wind-pollinated flowers.
🔑 Key Words
- pollination: the process used to transfer pollen from the anthers (of one flower) to the stigma (of another flower or of the same flower)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with sharp instruments. Cut away from the body. Follow dissection safety guidelines.
Lesson 84Core Practical – Investigating Seed Germination→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 178–179
Lab Book: Pages 53–57
📚 Specification Points
- 3.5 practical: investigate the conditions needed for seed germination
- 3.6 understand how germinating seeds utilise food reserves until the seedling can carryout photosynthesis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the conditions needed for seed germination
- explain how the different factors that affect seed germination can be investigated
- evaluate methods and interpret data on the germination of seeds.
🔑 Key Words
- hypothesis: a proposed explanation that is used as a starting point for an investigation; it is used to predict the outcome of an investigation
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Take care with glassware.
- • Take care with scissors.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Take care with glassware.
- • Take care with scissors.
- • Tke care with the alkaline pyrogallol.
Lesson 85The Human Reproductive System→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 118–123 and 126
📚 Specification Points
- 3.8 understand how the structure of the male and female reproductive systems are adapted for their functions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- outline the process of human reproduction
- explain how the structures of the male reproductive system are adapted to their function
- explain how structures of the female reproductive system are adapted to their function.
🔑 Key Words
- ovary: the female organ that produces egg cells (ova)
- testis: the male organ that produces sperm cells
- oviduct: the tube that carries the egg from the ovary to the uterus; also called the fallopian tube
- uterus: the organ where a fertilised egg implants and develops during pregnancy
- sperm: the male sex cell
- fertilisation: the fusion of a male and female gamete to form a zygote
Lesson 86The Menstrual Cycle→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 123–129
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle
- 3.10B understand the roles of FSH and LH in the menstrual cycle Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the stages of the menstrual cycle
- explain the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle
- explain the roles of FSH and LH in the menstrual cycle.
🔑 Key Words
- corpus luteum: a temporary endocrine structure that develops in an ovary from the follicle after it has released the ovum; it makes a lot of progesterone and some oestrogen; it breaks down if the ovum is not fertilised
- endometrium: the inner lining of the uterus that is shed during menstruation
- follicle: a structure in the ovary in which the ovum develops
- menstrual cycle: a series of events that occur in a female’s body to prepare the body for a possible pregnancy
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 118–126
📚 Specification Points
- 3.11 describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the developing embryo
- 3.12 understand how the developing embryo is protected by amniotic fluid
- 3.13 understand the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary sexual characteristics
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the roles of the placenta and the amnion in pregnancy
- describe the secondary sexual characteristics for males and females
- explain the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
🔑 Key Words
- amnion: a membrane that surrounds a fetus and secretes amniotic fluid
- blastocyst: a hollow ball of cells developed from the morula by further mitotic cell divisions; some of the cells have differentiated; there is a space called the blastocoel in the centre and the outer layers of cells are called the trophoblast
- chorion: the outermost membrane of a fetus that assists with the formation of the placenta
- morula: a ball of 16 cells, developed from mitotic divisions of the zygote, that forms during the early development of an embryo
- placenta: a temporary organ at the uterus wall that allows exchange of substances between mother and fetus during pregnancy
- secondary sexual characteristics: sexual features that develop in males and females at puberty
Lesson 88DNA and RNA→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 227–230
📚 Specification Points
- 3.14 understand that the genome is the entire DNA of an organism and that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA that codes for a specific protein
- 3.15 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located
- 3.16B describe a DNA molecule as two strands coiled to form a double helix, the strands being linked by a series of paired bases: adenine (A) with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G) Bio only
- 3.17B understand that an RNA molecule is single stranded and contains uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms genome, gene and chromosome
- describe the molecular structure of DNA
- compare the molecular structures of DNA and RNA.
🔑 Key Words
- gene: a length of DNA that codes for one (or more) specific proteins
- genome: the total genetic content of an individual
- helix: (plural – helices) coil
- nucleotide: monomer of nucleic acid; consists of a sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate
Lesson 89Protein Synthesis→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 230–234 and 239
📚 Specification Points
- 3.18B describe the stages of protein synthesis including transcription and translation, including the role of mRNA, ribosomes, tRNA, codons andanticodons Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the stages of protein synthesis
- describe the process of transcription
- describe the process of translation.
🔑 Key Words
- anticodon: triplet of nucleotide bases on a molecule of tRNA
- coding strand: the strand of a gene that has the genetic code for a protein
- codon: triplet of nucleotide bases on a length of mRNA
- peptide bond: bond between amino acids
- template: a pattern; the template strand of DNA is used to build the mRNA, which is complementary to it
- triplet: group of three
- tRNA: type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosomes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- There are no safety considerations for this practical.
Lesson 90Mitosis→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 240–242, 246, 248 and 278
📚 Specification Points
- 3.28 understand how division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells that contain identical sets of chromosomes
- 3.29 understand that mitosis occurs during growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproduction
- 3.32 know that in human cells the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the haploid number is 23
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process and outcome of mitosis
- know the diploid and haploid number for human cells
- explain the roles of mitosis in growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproduction.
🔑 Key Words
- asexually: without sex; without gametes
- clone: genetically identical
- homologous (chromosomes): a pair of chromosomes that are matched in size and carry the same genes at the same loci (positions)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- socks, but not paired up, just thrown haphazardly into the drawer.
Lesson 91Meiosis→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 242–248, 256–257
📚 Specification Points
- 3.26 understand how the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a male
- 3.27 describe the determination of the sex of offspring at fertilisation, using a genetic diagram
- 3.30 understand how division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in the formation of genetically different haploid gametes
- 3.31 understand how random fertilisation produces genetic variation of offspring
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process and outcome for meiosis
- explain how fertilisation leads to genetic variation in offspring
- explain how the sex of offspring is determined at fertilisation.
🔑 Key Words
- allele: version of a gene
- autosomes: chromosomes not involved in determining the sex of an individual
- chromatin: the DNA and associated proteins that are in eukaryotic nuclei and that condense into chromosomes just before mitosis or meiosis
- gonads: organs where sex cells are made; ovaries and testes in animals; ovaries and anthers in flowering plants
Lesson 92Monohybrid Inheritance→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 233–237 and 249–258
📚 Specification Points
- 3.19 understand how genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics
- 3.20 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, and genotype
- 3.23 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
- 3.24 understand how to interpret family pedigrees
- 3.25 predict probabilities and outcomes from monohybrid crosses
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms allele, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype and genotype
- use genetic diagrams to show monohybrid inheritance
- predict the probabilities and outcomes from monohybrid crosses
- interpret pedigree diagrams.
🔑 Key Words
- dominant: the allele in a heterozygous person, that is expressed and can be seen in the phenotype – even if there is also a recessive allele of that gene present
- counsellor: a person trained to give guidance
- genotype: type of alleles present for a particular trait
- heterozygous: having different alleles at a particular gene locus
- homozygous: having two identical alleles at a particular gene locus
- mutation: change to the DNA / genetic material
- pedigree diagram: genetic family tree that shows occurrence of phenotypes, for a particular gene, in three generations
- phenotype: observable characteristic(s)
- recessive: allele in a heterozygote that is not seen in the phenotype if a dominant allele is also present
Lesson 93Codominance and Polygenic Inheritance→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 254–257
📚 Specification Points
- 3.21B understand the meaning of the term codominance Bio only
- 3.22 understand that most phenotypic features are the result of polygenic inheritance rather than single genes
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term codominance
- describe how some phenotypic features are the result of polygenic inheritance rather than single genes.
🔑 Key Words
- codominant: jointly dominant – both alleles contribute to the phenotype
Lesson 95Manipulating Organisms→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 268–272, 274–276
📚 Specification Points
- 5.10 understand how selective breeding can develop plants with desired characteristics
- 5.11 understand how selective breeding can develop animals with desired characteristics
- 5.17B describe the process of micropropagation (tissue culture) in which explants are grown in vitro Bio only
- 5.18B understand how micropropagation can be used to produce commercial quantities of genetically identical plants with desirable characteristics Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the process of selective breeding in plants and animals
- describe the process of micropropagation in plants
- explain the commercial benefits of micropropagation in plants.
🔑 Key Words
- gene pool: all the genes and alleles within a population
- meristem: region of plant tissue (root tips and shoot tips and cambium) consisting of stem cells that are undifferentiated and can divide
- micropropagation: tissue culture; a method used to develop many genetically identical plants from a parent plant by using explants
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Be careful when using the knife. A knife or scalpel must be on the bench or held above the bench at all times. Always cut away from your body.
Lesson 96Cloning Mammals and Transgenic Animals→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 273–274
📚 Specification Points
- 5.19B describe the process used to produce Dolly the sheep as an example of adult cell cloning Bio only
- 5.20B understand how the process of genetic engineering/recombinant DNA technology involves the extraction of a gene from one organism and the insertion into another organism, using enzymes and vectors Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the principles involved in the cloning of mammals
- describe how Dolly the sheep was produced
- describe how transgenic animals can be used to produce human proteins.
🔑 Key Words
- enucleated: having the nucleus removed
- somatic: relating to the body
- transgenic: an organism that has DNA from another organism, usually of a different species, artificially introduced into it
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Producing male mosquitoes whose offspring do not mature, therefore reducing the
Lesson 97The Effect of Mutations on Variation→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 233–234 and 238–239
📚 Specification Points
- 3.33 understand that variation within a species can be genetic, environmental or a combination of both
- 3.34 understand that mutation is a rare, random change in genetic material that may be inherited
- 3.35B understand how a change in DNA can affect the phenotype by altering the sequence of amino acids in a protein Bio only
- 3.36B understand how most genetic mutations have no effect on the phenotype, some have a small effect and rarely do they have a significant effect Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the causes of variation within a species
- describe the effects of a change in DNA sequence on the structure of proteins
- explain the effect of genetic mutation on the phenotype.
🔑 Key Words
- mutagen: something that causes a mutation
Lesson 98Evolution→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 261–267
📚 Specification Points
- 3.37B understand that the incidence of mutations can be increased by exposure to ionising radiation (for example gamma rays, X-rays and ultra violet rays) and some chemical mutagens (for example chemicals in tobacco smoke) Bio only
- 3.38 explain Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
- 3.39 understand how resistance to antibiotics can arise and increase in bacterial populations, by natural selection; and appreciate how such an increase can lead to infections being difficult to control
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the features that increase the incidence of mutations
- explain Darwin’s theory of natural selection as a mechanism for evolution
- explain how natural selection increases resistance to antibiotics in bacterial populations, why this is an example of evolution, and why it is a problem.
🔑 Key Words
- evolution: the gradual change in the inherited characteristics of a population over many generations
- natural selection: the process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
- mutation: a random change in a gene or chromosome
- adaptation: a feature that helps an organism survive in its environment
- variation: differences between individuals of the same species
Lesson 99Genetic Engineering→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 289–297
📚 Specification Points
- 5.12 understand how restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes are used to join pieces of DNA together
- 5.13 understand how plasmids and viruses can act as vectors, which take up pieces of DNA, and then insert this recombinant DNA into other cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the function of restriction enzymes, ligase enzymes, plasmids and viruses in genetic engineering
- explain how DNA can be inserted into a plasmid
- explain the processes that can be used to insert recombinant DNA into other cells.
🔑 Key Words
- ligase: an enzyme that catalyses the joining together of lengths of DNA
- recognition site: sequence of nucleotide bases in a length of DNA that are acted on by the restriction enzyme
- restriction enzyme: enzyme that cuts DNA; its active site fits the shape of a specific recognition site
- vector: carrier
Lesson 100Genetically Modified Organisms→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 289–297 and 284–288, 301–302
📚 Specification Points
- 5.14 understand how a large amount of insulin can be manufactured from genetically modified bacteria that are grown in a fermenter
- 5.15 understand how genetically modified plants can be used to improve food production
- 5.16 understand that the term transgenic means the transfer of genetic material from one species to a different species
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how bacteria can be genetically modified to produce human insulin
- describe the process and benefits of growing genetically modified bacteria in a fermenter
- describe how viruses can be used to produce genetically modified plants
- explain how genetically modified plants can be used to improve food production.
🔑 Key Words
- genetically modified organism (GMO): an organism whose DNA has been altered by genetic engineering
- transgenic: describing an organism that contains genetic material from another species
- fermenter: a large vessel used to grow microorganisms on an industrial scale
- genetic engineering: the process of modifying an organism's DNA by adding genes from another organism
Lesson 103Ecosystems and Factors Affecting Them→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 187–193
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 understand the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem
- 4.5 understand how abiotic and biotic factors affect the population size and distribution of organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem
- apply the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem to examples
- explain how biotic and abiotic factors affect population size and the distribution of organisms.
🔑 Key Words
- abiotic factor: variable caused by non-living things that can change an ecosystem (e.g. light intensity, temperature, pH)
- bias: when data has been influenced by a person
- biotic factor: variable caused by living things that can change an ecosystem (e.g. predation, competition, food availability, disease)
- consumer: organism that eats other organisms for food
- decomposer: fungus or microorganism that feeds on and breaks down animal wastes and / or dead organisms
- ecosystem: all the living organisms and non-living factors that interact with one another in an area
- estimate: approximate value
- habitat: place in which an organism lives (e.g. desert, seashore)
- producer: organism that produces its own food (e.g. plants, algae)
- quadrat: square frame of known area, such as 1 m² , that is placed on the ground to get a sample of the organisms living in an area
- sample: small part of something; if you sample something, you take a small part of it – you use your results from the sample to estimate what the rest of the thing is like
Lesson 104Core Practical – Investigating Population Size→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 189–190
Lab Book: Pages 61–64
📚 Specification Points
- 4.2 practical: investigate the population size of an organism in two different areas using quadrats
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how to use a quadrat to sample a habitat
- use sample data to estimate population size
- explain how to collect samples so that accurate population estimates can be calculated.
🔑 Key Words
- bias: when data has been influenced by a person
- quadrat: square frame of known area, such as 1 m², that is placed on the ground to get a sample of the organisms living in that area
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care in the field. Be aware of uneven ground, stinging plants, and wildlife. Wash hands after fieldwork.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 190−192
Lab Book: Pages 65−67
📚 Specification Points
- 4.3B understand the term biodiversity Bio only
- 4.4B practical: investigate the distribution of organisms in their habitats and measure biodiversity using quadrats Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall what is meant by biodiversity
- use a belt transect to investigate the distribution of organisms
- use a sampling method involving a quadrat to investigate biodiversity.
🔑 Key Words
- belt transect: sampling method that measures distribution, using quadrats taken at regular intervals along a line
- biodiversity: how varied the organisms in an area are; the most biodiverse areas contain a lot of different species and many individuals of each species
- even distribution: when the same numbers of an organism are found in all parts of an area
- percentage cover: area that a certain plant covers compared to the whole, and expressed as a percentage; for example, a quadrat that is half covered by grass is 50% cover of grass
- uneven distribution: when there are more individuals of a species in some parts of an area than in other parts
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care in the field. Be aware of uneven ground, stinging plants, and wildlife. Wash hands after fieldwork.
Lesson 106Feeding Relationships→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 194−196
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 understand the names given to different trophic levels, including producers, primary, secondary and tertiary consumers and decomposers
- 4.7 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transfer
- 4.8 understand the transfer of substances and energy along a food chain
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the different trophic levels of feeding relationships in an ecosystem
- construct and interpret food chains and food webs
- explain the concepts of a pyramid of numbers and a pyramid of biomass.
🔑 Key Words
- biomass: total mass of a living thing or group of living things (usually ‘dry mass’, which is the mass without water)
- carnivore: animal that eats other animals
- consumer: organism that eats other organisms for food
- decomposer: fungus, microorganism or invertebrate that feeds on and breaks down animal wastes and / or dead organisms
- food chain: way to represent the energy in food that is passed from one organism to another
- food web: way to show how several food chains are interconnected in an ecosystem
- herbivore: animal that eats plants
- omnivore: animal that eats both plants and animals
- predator: organism that catches and eats other animals for food
- prey: animal that is food for a predator
- primary consumer: the first consumer in a food chain; herbivores are primary consumers
- producer: organism that produces its own food (e.g. plants, algae)
- pyramid of biomass: diagram showing trophic levels in a food chain stacked on top of each other, with the lengths of each bar representing biomass
- pyramid of numbers: diagram showing trophic levels in a food chain stacked on top of each other, with the lengths of each bar representing the total number of individuals
- secondary consumer: second consumer in a food chain
- tertiary consumer: third consumer in a food chain
- top carnivore: last animal in a food chain, with no predators; also called an apex predator
- trophic level: position of an organism in food chains in an ecosystem
Lesson 107Energy Transfer→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 208–210
📚 Specification Points
- 4.7 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids ofbiomass and pyramids of energy transfer
- 4.8 understand the transfer of substances and energy along a food chain
- 4.9 understand why only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next
- 5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control with crop plants
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use pyramids of energy transfer to model the transfer of energy along a food chain
- explain how some energy is transferred to the next trophic level, and why most energy is not transferred
- explain the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control on crop plants.
🔑 Key Words
- bioaccumulation: build-up of persistent substances in the bodies of organisms
- biological control: controlling pests using natural consumers of pest organisms
- biomagnification: increase in the concentration of persistent substances along a food chain
- persistent pesticide: artificial substance used to kill pests that does not break down in the environment and so lasts for a very long time
- pest: organism that damages things that humans want to use (e.g. crops)
- pesticide resistance: when a pest is no longer affected by a pesticide (due to natural selection)
- pesticide: substance used for controlling or killing pests
- pyramid of energy transfer: diagram showing trophic levels in a food chain stacked on top of each other, with the length of each bar representing energy
- yield: the amount of useful product obtained from an organism
Lesson 108Fish Farming→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 211
📚 Specification Points
- 5.9B understand the methods used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintaining water quality, controlling intraspecific and interspecific predation, controlling disease, removing waste products, controlling the quality and frequency of feeding, and selective breeding Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process of fish farming
- consider the benefits and drawbacks of fish farming
- explain how abiotic and biotic factors that affect the production of fish are controlled.
🔑 Key Words
- abiotic factor: variable caused by non-living things that can change an ecosystem (e.g. light intensity, temperature, pH)
- biotic factor: variable caused by living things that can change an ecosystem (e.g. predation, competition, food availability, disease)
- eutrophication: high concentrations of nutrients in an aquatic habitat
- fish farming: growing fish in captivity for food
- indigenous: organisms that have always been in an area
- interspecific competition: competition between members of different species
- intraspecific competition: competition between members of the same species
- non-indigenous: organisms in an area that have been introduced from elsewhere
- overfishing: taking more fish from a population than are replaced by the fish reproducing, so that the population falls over time
- parasite: an organism that lives in or on another organism, which it harms by feeding on it
Lesson 109The Carbon Cycle→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 197–198 and 215–216
📚 Specification Points
- 4.10 describe the stages in the carbon cycle, including respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition and combustion
- 4.18B understand the effects of deforestation, including leaching, soil erosion, disturbance of evapotranspiration and the carbon cycle, and the balance of atmospheric gases Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how carbon is recycled in the environment, through the carbon cycle
- describe the effects of respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition and combustion on the balance of gases in the atmosphere
- explain a range of effects caused by deforestation: flooding, erosion, leaching, local temperature increase.
🔑 Key Words
- assimilation: the processes by which organisms get nutrients and make them into new substances in their bodies
- biodiversity: how varied the organisms in an area are; the most biodiverse areas contain a lot of different species and many individuals of each species
- carbon cycle: the series of processes by which carbon atoms are recycled in the environment
- combustion: a chemical reaction that takes place between oxygen and certain fuels; carbon dioxide and water are released, and energy is released
- decomposition: breaking down large, complex organic molecules into simpler ones
- deforestation: clearing of forests (e.g. for farming, housing)
- erosion: when soil or rock particles are carried away by water, glaciers or the wind
- evapotranspiration: water vapour entering the atmosphere by transpiration from plants and evaporation from the soil
- fossil fuel: fuel made from prehistoric organisms by certain fossilisation processes
- fossilisation: a process that preserves parts of prehistoric organisms or traces of them
- leaching: a process in which soluble mineral ions are dissolved and washed out of soil by flowing water
- organic compound: a compound that contains carbon–carbon and / or carbon–hydrogen bonds
- transpiration: evaporation of water from the surface of a plant
Lesson 110The Nitrogen Cycle→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 199 and 207
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11B describe the stages in the nitrogen cycle, including the roles of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, decomposers, nitrifying bacteria and denitrifying bacteria (specific names of bacteria are not required) Bio only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the roles of plants, animals, decomposers and microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle
- describe how nitrogen is cycled through nitrogen gas and ammonium, nitrate and nitrite ions
- explain how nitrogen compounds can be added to soils.
🔑 Key Words
- crop rotation: when a different crop is planted in the same field each year in a 3- or 4-year cycle, with legumes often being grown one year
- denitrifying bacteria: bacteria that convert nitrates into nitrogen gas
- legume: family of plants that have root nodules (e.g. peas, beans, clover)
- nitrifying bacteria: bacteria that convert ammonium compounds into nitrites and nitrates
- nitrogen cycle: series of processes by which nitrogen atoms are recycled in the environment
- nitrogen-fixing bacteria: bacteria that convert nitrogen gas into ammonium compounds
- root nodules: structures found on the roots of legumes, in which nitrogen-fixing bacteria live
Lesson 111Eutrophication→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 216–217
📚 Specification Points
- 4.16 understand the biological consequences of pollution of water by sewage
- 4.17 understand the biological consequences of eutrophication caused by leached minerals from fertiliser
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how eutrophication occurs
- explain the effects of eutrophication on an ecosystem
- explain the effects of untreated sewage on an ecosystem.
🔑 Key Words
- algal bloom: an increase in the growth of algae because of increased levels of nutrients in water
- anoxic: the state of water when there is little or no dissolved oxygen in it
- eutrophication: high concentrations of nutrients in an aquatic habitat
- indicator species: an organism that provides information about a certain environmental condition (e.g. by its presence or absence)
- sewage: wastewater that contains wastes from homes, offices and factories, including human urine and faeces
Lesson 112Air Quality→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 211–215
📚 Specification Points
- 4.12 understand the biological consequences of pollution of air by sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide
- 4.13 understand that water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and CFCs are greenhouse gases
- 4.14 understand how human activities contribute to greenhouse gases
- 4.15 understand how an increase in greenhouse gases results in an enhanced greenhouse effect, and that this may lead to global warming and its consequences
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the effects of carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide on organisms
- describe how human activities increase the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
- explain the effect of greenhouse gases on the Earth.
🔑 Key Words
- acid rain: rain with a pH less than 5.5, containing sulfuric and nitric acids
- climate change: changes to global weather patterns due to global warming
- global warming: increase in the Earth’s average temperature caused by increased amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
- greenhouse effect: when gases in the air absorb energy transferred by infrared waves from the Earth, and so keep ‘heat’ in the atmosphere
- greenhouse gas: a gas that helps to trap ‘heat’ in the atmosphere; examples include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide
- pollutant: something (e.g. a substance) that can harm an ecosystem
- pollution: when high levels of a pollutant cause harm
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care when making the small holes in the bottles.
- • Mop up any spills immediately.
Single Science Chemistry — 4CH0 All Chemistry lessons including Chemistry-only spec points.
Lesson 1States of Matter→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 3–6
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 understand the three states of matter in terms of the arrangement, movement, and energy of the particles
- 1.2 understand the interconversions between the three states of matter in terms of: • the names of the interconversions • how they are achieved • the changes in arrangement, movement, and energy of the particles
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the arrangement, movement, and energy of the particles in the three states of matter
- link the properties of the three states of matter to the particle arrangements
- explain how changes of state are achieved.
🔑 Key Words
- boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid boils and changes to a gas
- condensing: the change of state from a gas to a liquid
- density: the mass per unit volume; it represents how tightly packed the particles are in a fixed volume
- deposition: the change of state from a gas directly to a solid
- evaporation: the change of state from a liquid to a gas that occurs below the boiling point and only at the surface of a liquid
- freezing: the change of state from a liquid to a solid
- melting point: the temperature at which a solid melts and changes to a liquid
- particle model: a way of describing the arrangement and movement of particles
- physical property: any characteristic of a substance that can be determined without changing the substance’s chemical identity
- state of matter: the condition in which matter exists (solid, liquid or gas)
- sublimation: the change of state from a solid directly to a gas
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • Care should be taken with hot apparatus.
Lesson 2Diffusion and Solutions→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 6–9
📚 Specification Points
- 1.3 understand how the results of experiments involving the dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion of gases can be explained
- 1.4 know what is meant by the terms: • solvent • solute • solution • saturated solution
- 1.5C know what is meant by the term solubility in the units g per 100 g of solvent Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms diffusion, solvent, solute, solution and saturated
- describe and use the example of potassium manganate (VII) changing colour when it is diluted
- explain the results of experiments involving the dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion of gases
- describe how a solution is made
- define the term solubility in the units g per 10⁰ g of solvent.
🔑 Key Words
- diffusion: the spreading out of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- solvent: the liquid in which a solute dissolves to form a solution
- solute: the substance that dissolves in a solvent
- solution: a mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
- saturated solution: a solution in which no more solute can dissolve at that temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
Lesson 3Solubility Curves→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 8–12
Lab Book: Pages 2–4
📚 Specification Points
- 1.5C know what is meant by the term solubility in the units g per 100 g of solvent Chem only
- 1.6C understand how to plot and interpret solubility curves Chem only
- 1.7C practical: investigate the solubility of a solid in water at a specific temperature Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how to investigate the solubility of a solid in water at a specific
- temperature
- use the results of a solubility investigation to plot a solubility curve
- interpret solubility curves
- calculate solubility in g per 10⁰ g of solvent
- compare solubility of the same substance at different temperatures.
🔑 Key Words
- insoluble: a term to describe a substance that will not
- dissolve in a solvent
- saturated: a solution that contains as much dissolved solid as
- possible at a particular temperature
- solubility curve: a graph showing how the solubility of a
- solute in a particular solvent changes with temperature
- solubility: the mass of solute which must dissolve in
- 10⁰ g of solvent at that temperature so that it forms a saturated
- solution
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Wear eye protection throughout the practical.
Lesson 4Elements, Compounds and Mixtures→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 14–16 and 22
📚 Specification Points
- 1.8 understand how to classify a substance as an element, compound, or mixture
- 1.9 understand that a pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling point, but that a mixture may melt or boil over a range of temperatures
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms element, compound, and mixture
- identify elements, compounds, and mixtures from particle diagrams
- identify elements, compounds, and mixtures from names/formulae
- describe the difference in melting and boiling points between pure substances and mixtures.
🔑 Key Words
- atom: the smallest piece of an element that can still be recognised as that element
- atomic number: the number of protons in an atom
- compound: a substance that forms when two or more elements chemically combine; the elements cannot be separated by physical means
- element: a substance that cannot be split into anything simpler by chemical means; all atoms in an element have the same atomic number
- mixture: two or more substances that are not chemically combined and that can be separated by physical means
- particle: a small object; in chemistry, particle can be used to refer to atoms, molecules, ions, or the subatomic particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons
- pure: a single substance with a fixed composition that does not have anything else mixed with it
Lesson 5Separating Mixtures→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 14–17
📚 Specification Points
- 1.8 understand how to classify a substance as an element, compound, or mixture
- 1.10 describe these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures: • filtration • crystallisation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why mixtures are easy to separate, whereas compounds are not
- describe the processes of filtration and crystallisation
- describe how a mixture of salt and sand may be separated.
🔑 Key Words
- crystallisation: a process in which a solute (soluble solid) is obtained from a solvent
- filtrate: the liquid that passes through the filter paper during filtration
- filtration: a process to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid
- residue: the substance left on the filter paper after filtration
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye-protection should be worn during this demonstration and heatproof gloves worn when handing hot equipment.
- • Ensure that you are entirely satisfied with student plans before they carry them out. An additional risk assessment is advised as groups will be using various pieces of equipment but at different times. For example, you might decide on having one part of the lab where heating happens, and filtering in another area, or you might insist on precautions for heating throughout (i.e., wearing eye protection, long hair tied back) regardless of the low risk of filtering a sand–salt solution.
- • Depending on the ability and behaviour of the group, you will need to decide whether this increases the risk of the practical beyond a level you feel comfortable with. It is possible for some groups to start heating directly and others to use a water bath.
- • Students should take care when heating to dryness because it may cause spitting – eye protection should be worn.
- • Students should also be careful with hot objects. They should be reminded to allow equipment to cool before handling it or use heatproof gloves when moving the equipment.
Lesson 6Separating Techniques – Distillation→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 18–19
📚 Specification Points
- 1.10 describe these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures: • simple distillation • fractional distillation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process of simple distillation
- describe the process of fractional distillation
- evaluate the use of simple and fractional distillation as separating techniques.
🔑 Key Words
- fractional distillation: a process to separate two liquids with different boiling points, for example ethanol and water or the components of crude oil
- fractionating column: a piece of equipment used for separating vapours in fractional distillation
- Liebig condenser: a piece of glassware which has cold water running through the outside sleeve, which causes the vapour within the condenser to turn back into a liquid
- simple distillation: a process used to separate two liquids of different boiling points, or to separate the solvent and solid solute from a solution
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Be mindful of the risk of scalding from hot steam. You may decide to use anti-bumping granules to help the liquid boil more smoothly and reduce the risk of boiling over. Remind students not to handle hot equipment – they should allow any apparatus that was used in heating to cool before putting it away.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Remind students not to handle hot equipment – they should allow any apparatus that was used in heating to cool before putting it away.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Hot water and glassware can cause burns.
- • Ethanol is flammable; make sure there are no naked flames in the laboratory.
Lesson 7Chromatography→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 19–21
Lab Book: Pages 5–7
📚 Specification Points
- 1.10 describe this experimental technique for the separation of mixtures: paper chromatography
- 1.11 understand how a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a mixture
- 1.12 understand how to use the calculation of Rf values to identify the components of a mixture
- 1.13 practical: investigate paper chromatography using inks/food colourings
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the technique of chromatography
- explain that a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a mixture
- calculateRfvalues
- useRfvalues to identify the components of a mixture.
🔑 Key Words
- chromatogram: the absorbent paper from paper chromatography showing the separation of different coloured substances
- paper chromatography: a process used to separate a mixture of coloured substances using absorbent paper
- retardation factor (Rf): (sometimes called the retention factor) calculated as the distance moved by a spot of dye (from the pencil line) divided by the distance moved by the solvent front (from the pencil line) on a chromatogram
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The solvent suggested for biro ink is flammable and harmful – ensure there are no naked flames in the lab.
- • There are no safety considerations for this practical.
Lesson 8Atomic Structure→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 24–26
📚 Specification Points
- 1.14 know what is meant by the terms: atom and molecule
- 1.15 know the structure of an atom in terms of the positions, relative masses, and relative charges of sub-atomic particles
- 1.16 know what is meant by the terms atomic number, mass number, and relative atomic mass (Ar)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms atom and molecule
- describe the structure of an atom
- know the relative mass and charge of each sub-atomic particle
- state what the terms atomic number and mass number mean
- use atomic number and mass number to calculate the number of each sub-atomic particle.
🔑 Key Words
- atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
- electron: a sub-atomic particle found in shells (energy levels) outside the nucleus of an atom; it has a relative mass of 1/1836 and a relative charge of –1; for a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons and therefore is the same as the atomic number
- mass number: the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
- molecule: two or more atoms covalently bonded together; molecules contain a certain fixed number of atoms
- neutron: a sub-atomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it has a relative mass of 1 and no charge; the number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between the mass number and the atomic number
- nucleon number: an alternative name for the mass number
- proton: a sub-atomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it has a relative mass of 1 and a relative charge of +1; the number of protons in an atom is the same as the atomic number
- proton number: an alternative name for the atomic number
- sub-atomic particles: particles that are smaller than an atom.
Lesson 9Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 26–27
📚 Specification Points
- 1.16 know what is meant by the terms atomic number, mass number, and relative atomic mass (Ar)
- 1.17 be able to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element (Ar) from isotopic abundances
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term isotope
- explain that the presence of isotopes leads to atoms of the same element having different mass numbers
- calculate the relative atomic mass for an element from isotopic abundances.
🔑 Key Words
- isotopes: different atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons; isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties
- relative atomic mass: the weighted average mass of the isotopes of an element, relative to the mass of 1 12 of a 12C atom
Lesson 10The Periodic Table→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 30–34
📚 Specification Points
- 1.18 understand how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table: • in order of atomic number • in groups and periods.
- 1.19 understand how to deduce the electronic configurations of the first 20 elements from their positions in the Periodic Table
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in order of atomic number
- describe how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in groups and periods
- deduce the electronic configuration of the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table.
🔑 Key Words
- electronic configuration: how electrons are arranged in the shells (energy levels) in an atom
- energy levels or shells: where electrons are found in an atom; each shell can only hold a certain number of electrons
- group: a vertical column in the Periodic Table; all elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons
- period: a horizontal row in the Periodic Table; all elements in the same period have the same number of occupied shells
- Periodic Table: a table in which elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number and in terms of chemical and physical properties
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection. Use no more than three small calcium granules.
Lesson 11Using Electronic Configurations→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 33–35
📚 Specification Points
- 1.22 understand how the electronic configuration of a main group element is related to its position in the Periodic Table
- 1.23 understand why elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties
- 1.24 understand why the noble gases (Group 0) do not readily react
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how the electronic configuration of an element is related to its position in the Periodic Table
- explain why elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties
- explain why noble gases do not readily react.
🔑 Key Words
- noble gases: non-metallic gases from Group 0 including helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon
Lesson 12Metals and Non-metals→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 35–36
📚 Specification Points
- 1.20 understand how to use electrical conductivity and the acid-base character of oxides to classify elements as metals or non-metals
- 1.21 identify an element as a metal or a non-metal according to its position in the Periodic Table
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify an element as a metal or a non-metal depending on its position in the Periodic Table
- describe how to use electrical conductivity to classify an element as a metal or non-metal
- describe how to use the acid–base character of oxides to classify an element as a metal or a non-metal.
🔑 Key Words
- ductile: a property of metal that allows it to be drawn out into wires
- malleable: a property of metal that allows it to be hammered into different shapes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety considerations for this practical.
- • Wear eye protection: 0.2M nitric acid, 0.2M potassium hydroxide and 0.2M sodium hydroxide are irritants.
- • When stretching wires, wear eye protection.
- • When using the hammer to beat the lead rod, wear eye protection and use a safety screen.
- • Have some cushioning material positioned below the slotted masses and wire to avoid the masses landing on the floor or bouncing off the table.
Lesson 15Ions→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–78
📚 Specification Points
- 1.37 Understand how ions are formed by electron loss or gain.
- 1.38 Know the charges of these ions: Metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3 Non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7 Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term ion
- explain how positive ions (cations) are formed by the loss of electrons
- explain how negative ions (anions) are formed by the gain of electrons
- predict the charges of ions formed by metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3
- predict the charges of ions formed by non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7
- recall the charges and formulae of these ions: Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺
🔑 Key Words
- ion: an atom or group of atoms that has gained or lost electrons, giving it a positive or negative charge
- cation: a positively charged ion formed by the loss of electrons
- anion: a negatively charged ion formed by the gain of electrons
- electron loss: the process by which a metal atom becomes a positively charged ion
- electron gain: the process by which a non-metal atom becomes a negatively charged ion
Lesson 16Ionic Bonds→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–78
📚 Specification Points
- 1.39 Write formulae for compounds formed between the following ions: Metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3 Non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7 Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺ Hydrogen (H⁺), hydroxide (OH⁻), ammonium (NH₄⁺), carbonate (CO₃²⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), sulfate (SO₄²⁻)
- 1.40 Draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show the formation of ionic compounds by electron transfer, limited to combinations of elements from Groups 1, 2, 3 and 5, 6, 7. Only outer electrons need be shown.
- 1.41 Understand ionic bonding in terms of electrostatic attractions.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- In this lesson, students will learn to: write formulae for compounds made from:
- ions in Groups 1–3 and 5–7
- Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺
- H⁺, OH⁻, NH₄⁺, CO₃²⁻, NO₃⁻ and SO₄²⁻
- draw dot-and-cross diagrams for ionic compounds made from elements in Groups 1–3 and Groups 5–6
- describe an ionic bond as an electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
🔑 Key Words
- electrostatic force: the force of attraction between a positive charge and a negative charge
- ionic bond: strong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions, formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another
- isoelectronic: having the same number of electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Wear eye protection throughout the practical.
- Do not look directly at burning magnesium — the bright light can damage eyes. Wear eye protection.
Lesson 17Properties of Ionic Lattices→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 81–83
📚 Specification Points
- 1.42 understand why compounds with giant ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points
- 1.43 know that ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when solid, but do conduct electricity when molten and in aqueous solution
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of a giant ionic lattice
- evaluate the use of models for ionic lattices
- explain why ionic lattices are brittle
- explain why ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points
- explain why ionic compounds can conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but not when solid.
🔑 Key Words
- giant: a structure in which there are no individual molecules or particles (ions/atoms) because the bonding extends in all directions with no limit to the number of particles present
- giant ionic lattice: the arrangement of ions in an ionic compound in its solid state
- lattice: a regular arrangement of particles
- molten: the liquid state formed when a solid has melted
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety considerations for this practical.
- • Group students into small groups and ask each group to follow the instructions on Worksheet 1: Practical method 1 and use the information about ionic bonds, ion size and electrostatic forces to make and evaluate a model of the ion structure in sodium chloride. When evaluating their models, students should note good and bad points.
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • There should be no naked flames in the laboratory as ethanol is highly flammable.
- • Ensure that the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Take particular care with any students who have asthma, as chlorine is produced from sodium chloride.
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • Ensure that the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Take particular care with any students who have asthma, as chlorine is produced from sodium chloride.
Lesson 18Reactions of Group 1 Metals→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 122–126
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 understand how the similarities in the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for their recognition as a family of elements
- 2.2 understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 1
🎯 Learning Objectives
- compare the appearance and density of Group 1 metals with common transition metals such as iron and copper
- describe the reactions of Group 1 metals with water
- write equations for the reactions of Group 1 metals with water
- explain how similarities in the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for their recognition as a family of elements
- explain how the differences between the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity of Group 1.
🔑 Key Words
- alkali metals: the elements of Group 1
- reactivity: how readily a substance reacts with other chemicals to form new compounds
- tarnish: to become dull and lose colour
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection and stand behind a safety screen during the demonstration. Ensure that students wear eye protection and remain at least 1 metre away from the screen.
- • Only use small amounts of alkali metals at a time (about half the size of a pea). You should practise using the alkali metals prior to the lesson. Do not be tempted by the exuberance of the students to use larger pieces.
- • All the demonstrations should be practised prior to being carried out in front of students. As students only need to see the results of the experiments and do not carry them out, video material is an acceptable alternative.
Lesson 19Reactivity Trend of the Group 1 Metals→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 122–129
📚 Specification Points
- 2.2 understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 1
- 2.3 use knowledge of trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals
- 2.4C explain the trend in reactivity in Group 1 in terms of electronic configurations Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity of Group 1 elements
- explain the trend in reactivity in Group 1 in terms of electronic configurations
- use knowledge of the trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals.
🔑 Key Words
- alkali metals: the elements of Group 1
- reactivity: how readily a substance reacts with other chemicals to form new compounds
Lesson 20Properties of the Halogens→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 130–131
📚 Specification Points
- 2.5 know the colours, physical states (at room temperature) and trends in physical properties of these elements
- 2.6 use knowledge of trends in Group 7 to predict the properties of other halogens
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the colours, physical states (at room temperature) and trends in physical properties of the Group 7 elements
- predict the properties of other halogens based on their knowledge of the trends in Group 7
- describe some uses for Group 7 elements.
🔑 Key Words
- covalent bond: a strong electrostatic force of attraction between the nuclei of the atoms making up the bond and the shared pair of electrons
- diatomic molecule: a molecule that contains two atoms
- halogen: a Group 7 element, including chlorine, fluorine, bromine and iodine
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ensure that the lab is very well ventilated.
- • Chlorine must be stored in a fume cupboard.
- • Smell chlorine very carefully.
Lesson 21Reactivity of the Halogens→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 132–134
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 understand how displacement reactions involving halogens and halides provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 7
- 2.8C explain the trend in reactivity in Group 7 in terms of electronic configurations Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term ‘displacement reaction’
- describe how displacement reactions involving halogens and halides provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 7
- write equations for displacement reactions involving halogens and halide ions
- explain the trend in reactivity of Group 7 in terms of electron configurations.
🔑 Key Words
- halogen: an element in Group 7 of the periodic table
- displacement reaction: a reaction in which a more reactive element takes the place of a less reactive element in a compound
- reactivity: a measure of how readily an element undergoes chemical reactions
- halide: a negative ion formed when a halogen atom gains one electron
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Take care not to inhale halogen vapours.
- • Ensure that the lab is very well ventilated.
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Carry out the demonstration in a fume cupboard.
Lesson 22Covalent Bonding→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 85–91
📚 Specification Points
- 1.44 know that a covalent bond is formed between atoms by the sharing of a pair of electrons
- 1.45 understand covalent bonds in terms of electrostatic attractions
- 1.46 understand how to use dot-and-cross diagrams to represent covalent bonds in: • diatomic molecules, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, and hydrogen halides • inorganic molecules including water, ammonia, and carbon dioxide • organic molecules containing up to two carbon atoms, including methane, ethane, ethene and those containing halogen atoms.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe what a covalent bond is in terms of the sharing of electrons
- understand covalent bonds in terms of electrostatic attraction
- understand how to use dot-and-cross diagrams to represent molecules.
🔑 Key Words
- covalent bonding: strong electrostatic force of attraction between the nuclei of the atoms making up the bond and the shared pair of electrons
- diatomic molecule: a molecule that contains two atoms
- double bond: atoms sharing two pairs of electrons in a covalent bond
- molecule: two or more atoms covalently bonded together; molecules contain a certain fixed number of atoms
- octet rule: the octet rule states that atoms generally lose, gain, or share electrons to have eight electrons in their outer shell
- triple bond: atoms sharing three pairs of electrons in a covalent bond
Lesson 23Simple Covalent Molecules→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 92–93
📚 Specification Points
- 1.47 explain why substances with a simple molecular structures are gases or liquids, or solids with low melting and boiling points the term intermolecular forces of attraction can be used to represent all forces between molecules
- 1.48 explain why the melting and boiling points of substances with simple molecular structures increase, in general, with increasing relative molecular mass
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why substances with a simple molecular structure have low melting and boiling points
- explain why the melting and boiling points of simple molecular structures increase, in general, with increasing relative molecular mass
- know that covalent compounds do not usually conduct electricity.
🔑 Key Words
- intermolecular forces: forces of attraction between covalent molecules, much weaker than the covalent bonds within the molecules
- simple molecular structure: the type of structure formed when molecules are joined together by intermolecular forces
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection must be worn.
- • Indirect heating of the alkanes makes it unlikely that they will ignite. However, some of the molten alkanes will be hot to the touch. Care should be taken.
- • Standard procedures should be adopted when using Bunsen burners.
- • Warn students about the hazard of heated water, and to take care that the water bath and tubes are stable during and after the experiment.
- • Care should be taken when placing tubes into the water bath, so that students are not working directly over a lit Bunsen burner.
Lesson 24Allotropes of Carbon→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 93–97
📚 Specification Points
- 1.49 explain why substances with giant covalent structures are solids with high melting and boiling points
- 1.50 explain how the structures of diamond, graphite and C60 fullerene influence their physical properties, including electrical conductivity and hardness
- 1.51 know that covalent compounds do not usually conduct electricity
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why substances with giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points
- explain how the structures of diamond, graphite and C60 fullerenes influence their physical properties
- know that covalent compounds do not usually conduct electricity.
🔑 Key Words
- allotropes: different forms of the same element (for example, diamond, graphite and C60 fullerene are three allotropes of carbon)
- delocalised electrons: electrons that are no longer attached to particular atoms or pairs of atoms but are free to move through the whole structure
- fullerenes: a family of molecules made of carbon atoms joined by single and double bonds that form closed or partially closed structures
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- There is no safety issue if the spaghetti is pre-cut.
Lesson 27Metallic Bonding→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 98–100
📚 Specification Points
- 1.52C know how to represent a metallic lattice by a 2-D diagram Chem only
- 1.53C understand metallic bonding in terms of electrostatic attractions Chem only
- 1.54C explain typical physical properties of metals, including electrical conductivity and malleability Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the particles and how they are arranged in metals
- describe the typical properties of metals
- explain the properties of metals, including malleability and the ability to conduct electricity.
🔑 Key Words
- electrical conductivity: the ability to carry an electric current
- delocalised electrons: electrons that are no longer attached to particular atoms or pairs of atoms, but are free to move throughout the whole structure
- ductility: a property of metal that allows it to be drawn out into wires
- malleability: a property of metal that allows it to be hammered into different shapes
- metallic bonding: electrostatic force of attraction between a lattice of positive ions and the sea of delocalised electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Iodine is harmful and a danger to the environment.
- • Ensure the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Only switch on the power supply for a short time.
- • Wear eye protection when heating the elements.
- • Heat iodine or sulfur in a fume cupboard.
Lesson 28Core Practical – Reactivity Series→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 145–146 and 150–156
Lab Book: Pages 18–19
📚 Specification Points
- 2.17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
- 2.15 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their reactions with: • water • dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid.
- 2.21 practical: investigate reactions between dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids and metals (e.g., magnesium, zinc and iron)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the reactivity series of metals in terms of the reactivity of the metals with water and dilute acids
- describe the reactions of common metals with water and acids
- deduce the order of metals in the reactivity series from their reactions with water and acids.
🔑 Key Words
- reactivity series: a list of metals in order of decreasing reactivity
- salt: a compound formed when hydrogen is replaced by a metal or ammonium in an acid
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Ethanol/spirit is flammable. Keep away from naked flames and sources of ignition.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- with water and dilute acids
- Some metals, such as copper, silver and gold, do not react with dilute acids.
- Some metals, such as sodium and potassium, react violently with dilute acids.
Lesson 29Displacement Reactions Involving Metal Oxides→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 146–148
📚 Specification Points
- 2.16 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their displacement reactions between: • metals and metal oxides
- 2.17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
- 2.20 understand the terms: • oxidation • reduction • redox • oxidising agent • reducing agent in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the reactions of metals with metal oxides
- explain why displacement reactions are examples of redox reactions
- deduce the order of metals in the reactivity series from the reactions between metals and metal oxides
- explain the reactivity series in terms of the tendency of different metal atoms to form cations
- state the meaning of the terms: oxidation, reduction, redox, oxidising agent and reducing agent in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons.
🔑 Key Words
- oxidation: a reaction when a substance gains oxygen or loses electrons
- oxidising agent: a substance that oxidises another substance by giving oxygen to it or removing electrons from it
- redox reaction: a reaction when one substance is reduced (gains electrons) and another substance is oxidised (loses electrons) at the same time
- reducing agent: a substance that reduces another substance by removing oxygen from it or by giving electrons to it
- reduction: a reaction when a substance loses oxygen or gains electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear goggles ( not safety spectacles) or a face shield.
- • Students must wear eye protection and should stand at least 4 m away at the back of the laboratory.
- • This experiment must not be performed outdoors.
- • This experiment must not be performed in a fume cupboard.
- • The laboratory must be well ventilated.
- • Use safety screens and cover the bench top with heat-resistant mats.
- • Aluminium powder is highly flammable.
- • Do not use any other forms of ignition, such as potassium manganate(VII) and hot glycerol as the filter paper catches fire.
- • Do not use any copper oxide, chromium(VI) oxide, lead oxide or manganese(IV) oxide.
- • The procedure can be carried out safely, providing the control measures are rigorously adhered to.
- • No additional igniter is needed. Light a Bunsen burner, use it to ignite the sparkler, then move behind the safety screens. Once the reaction has stopped, remove the beaker. Retrieve the iron formed with a magnet. Wash the iron under running water.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Take care with the hot apparatus.
- • Do not look directly at magnesium when it reacts.
- • Zinc and magnesium are highly flammable.
Lesson 30Displacement Reactions Involving Solutions of Salts→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 148–150
📚 Specification Points
- 2.16 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their displacement reactions between: • metals and aqueous solutions of metal salts.
- 2.17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
- 2.20 understand the terms: • oxidation • reduction • redox • oxidising agent • reducing agent in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the reactions of metals with salt solutions
- explain why displacement reactions are redox reactions
- deduce the order of metals in the reactivity series from their reactions with salt solutions
- explain the reactivity series in terms of the tendency of different metal atoms to form cations.
🔑 Key Words
- displacement reaction: a reaction in which a more reactive metal takes the place of a less reactive metal in a compound
- reactivity series: a list of metals arranged in order of their reactivity
- aqueous solution: a solution in which water is the solvent
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Magnesium is highly flammable – make sure there are no naked flames in the laboratory.
Lesson 31Rusting→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 139 and 156–157
📚 Specification Points
- 2.18 know the conditions under which iron rusts
- 2.19 understand how the rusting of iron may be prevented by: • barrier methods • galvanising • sacrificial protection
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe corrosion of metals as the result of oxidation
- describe how rusting of iron occurs
- explain how rusting can be prevented by excluding oxygen and/or water
- explain how sacrificial protection works.
🔑 Key Words
- barrier protection: a method of rust prevention by coating with oil, paint, grease or plastic so that water and oxygen cannot reach the iron
- rusting: the corrosion of iron in the presence of oxygen and water
- sacrificial protection: a method of preventing rusting by attaching a block of a more reactive metal to the surface of the iron or steel
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
- • Care is needed with solutions of acid. Wash off splashes immediately.
- • Answers may include: keeping air/water away from iron; storing in an unreactive atmosphere of nitrogen or argon; using a desiccant powder to absorb water vapour; painting; oiling; greasing; coating with plastic. Some students may even say sacrificial protection or galvanising.
Lesson 32Extracting Metals→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 160–162
📚 Specification Points
- 2.22C know that most metals are extracted from ores found in the Earth’s crust and that unreactive metals are often found as the uncombined element Chem only
- 2.23C explain how the method of extraction of a metal is related to its position in the reactivity series, illustrated by carbon extraction for iron and electrolysis for aluminium Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the meaning of the term ‘ore’
- recall some metals that are found uncombined in the Earth’s crust
- explain how and why some metals are extracted from their ores by heating with carbon
- explain how and why some metals are extracted from their ores by electrolysis.
🔑 Key Words
- electrolysis: the chemical change caused by passing an electric current through a compound that is either molten or in solution
- ore: rocks that contain enough of a mineral to make it worthwhile to extract the metal.
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • Take care with hot apparatus.
- • Copper oxide is harmful. Lead oxide is toxic.
Lesson 33Uses of Metals and Alloys→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 163–165
📚 Specification Points
- 2.25C explain the uses of aluminium, copper, iron, and steel in terms of their properties (the types of steel will be limited to low-carbon (mild), high-carbon and stainless) Chem only
- 2.26C know that an alloy is a mixture of a metal and one or more elements, usually other metals, or carbon Chem only
- 2.27C explain why alloys are harder than pure metals Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall common uses for aluminium, copper, iron and steel
- describe what alloys are
- explain why alloys are often harder than the metals they contain
- explain why different metals and their alloys have different uses.
🔑 Key Words
- alloy: a mixture of a metal with one or more other elements, usually other metals or carbon
- low-carbon steel: steel containing a small percentage of carbon; soft and easily shaped
- high-carbon steel: steel containing a higher percentage of carbon; hard but brittle
- stainless steel: an alloy of iron with chromium and nickel that resists corrosion
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • Thermal gloves should be worn when handling hot apparatus.
- • Lead metal is toxic; heat it only for the shortest time needed and avoid breathing fumes.
- • Make sure the laboratory is adequately ventilated.
Lesson 34Tests for Gases→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 191–192
📚 Specification Points
- 2.44 describe tests for these gases: • hydrogen • oxygen • carbon dioxide • ammonia • chlorine.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the test for hydrogen and the positive result
- describe the test for oxygen and the positive result
- describe the test for carbon dioxide and the positive result
- describe the test for ammonia and the positive result
- describe the test for chlorine and the positive result.
🔑 Key Words
- bleach: to remove all colour from an object and turn it white
- clear: you can see through it
- colourless: has no colour
- litmus paper: paper that contains a dye that reacts with acids or alkalis to change colour
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Carry out this work in a fume cupboard or well-ventilated area.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 35Tests for Positive Ions→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 192–194
📚 Specification Points
- 2.45 describe how to carry out a flame test
- 2.46 know the colours formed in flame tests for these cations: • Li⁺ is red • Na⁺ is yellow • K⁺ is lilac • Ca²⁺ is orange-red • Cu²⁺ is blue-green
- 2.47 describe tests for these cations: • NH₄⁺ using sodium hydroxide solution and identifying the gas evolved • Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ using sodium hydroxide solution
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why the test for a given ion must be unique to that ion
- recall some metal hydroxide precipitate colours
- describe how to identify metal ions using sodium hydroxide solution
- describe how to identify ammonium ions and ammonia. Slideshow: Learning objectives
🔑 Key Words
- nichrome: an unreactive metal alloy
- precipitate: a fine insoluble solid that is formed by a chemical reaction involving substances in solution Slideshow: Key definitions
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- hydrochloric acid and hold it in a Bunsen burner flame.
- the wire and the unknown salt in a roaring (blue) Bunsen burner flame.
Lesson 37Testing for Negative Ions and Water→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 192 and 194–196
📚 Specification Points
- 2.48 describe tests for these anions: • Cl⁻, Br⁻ and I⁻ using acidified silver nitrate solution • SO₄²⁻ using acidified barium chloride solution • CO₃²⁻ using hydrochloric acid and identifying the gas evolved.
- 2.49 describe a test for the presence of water using anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
- 2.50 describe a physical test to show whether a sample of water is pure
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how to identify carbonate ions
- describe how to identify sulfate ions in solution
- describe how to identify halide ions in solution
- describe a test for the presence of water.
🔑 Key Words
- anhydrous: without water
- carbonate ions: ions formed by carbon and oxygen
- halide ions: ions formed by halogens
- sulfate ions: ions formed by sulfur and water
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn.
- Avoid skin contact with the substances used.
- Barium chloride solution is harmful.
- Dilute nitric acid is an irritant.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 38Rates of Reaction – Surface Area and Concentration→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 227–233
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature on the rate of a reaction
- 3.10 describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature on the rate of a reaction
- 3.11 explain the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, and temperature on the rate of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what has to happen for reactions to take place
- explain why changes in the frequency of collisions between particles affect the rate of reaction
- describe how to calculate rate of reaction from experimental data.
🔑 Key Words
- activation energy: the minimum amount of energy required for a collision to be successful, i.e., result in a reaction
- collision theory: states that for a reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide with each other, in the correct orientation and with sufficient energy
- concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a certain volume of solvent; in general, if you increase the concentration of reactants in a reaction, the rate of reaction increases
- rate: the speed at which the amount of reactant decreases or the amount of product increases; it is measured as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time
- surface area: the area on the surface of a solid that is exposed
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection. Handle acids and alkalis with care; wash any splashes off skin immediately.
- Ethanol/spirit is flammable. Keep away from naked flames and sources of ignition.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 231–233
Lab Book: Pages 37–41
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature, on the rate of a reaction
- 3.10 describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, pressure of a gas, temperature and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
- 3.11 explain the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, pressure of a gas and temperature on the rate of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory
- 3.15 practical: investigate the effect of changing the surface area of marble chips and of changing the concentration of hydrochloric acid on the rate of reaction between marble chips and dilute hydrochloric acid.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid or concentration of a solution on the rate of a reaction
- describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid or concentration of a solution on the rate of a reaction
- explain the effects of changes in surface area of a solid or concentration of a solution on the rate of a reaction
- explain why a graph of concentration against time is a curve.
🔑 Key Words
- concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a certain volume of solvent; in general, if you increase the concentration of reactants in a reaction, the rate of reaction increases
- rate: the speed at which the amount of reactant decreases or the amount of product increases; it is measured as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time
- surface area: the area on the surface of a solid that is exposed
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Care is needed with acid solutions. Wash off splashes immediately. Hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 1.0 mol/dm³ is a low hazard but may still cause harm in eyes and in cuts.
- • Calcium carbonate is a low hazard.
- • Eye protection must be worn by teacher and students.
- • The best alcohol to use is propan-2-ol. Propan-1-ol, ethanol or methanol [not above room temperatures greater that 22 °C] could be used – do not use any other flammable liquids.
- • Do not add oxygen to the bottle.
- • Only use polycarbonate bottles, identified by PC mark on base. Do not use glass bottles or damaged polycarbonate bottles.
Lesson 40Energy and Rates of Reaction→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 234–238
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in temperature, and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
- 3.10 describe the effects of changes in pressure of a gas, temperature, and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
- 3.11 explain the effects of changes in pressure of a gas and temperature on the rate of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory
- 3.12 know that a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction
- 3.13 know that a catalyst works by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy
- 3.14C draw and explain reaction profile diagrams showing ΔH and activation energy Chem only
- 3.16 practical: investigate the effect of different solids on the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe an experiment to investigate the effect of changing temperature on the rate of a reaction
- describe and explain the effect of changing temperature on the rate of a reaction
- explain that a catalyst lowers activation energy by providing an alternative reaction pathway, and is chemically unchanged at the end of a reaction
- draw and explain reaction profile diagrams showing ΔH and activation energy
- describe how to investigate the effect of different catalysts on the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution.
🔑 Key Words
- rate of reaction: the speed at which reactants are converted into products
- activation energy: the minimum amount of energy that colliding particles must have in order to react
- catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up
- collision theory: the idea that particles must collide with sufficient energy for a reaction to occur
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection at all times.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 41Writing Equations and Relative Formula Mass→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 38–44
📚 Specification Points
- 1.25 write word equations and balanced chemical equations (including state symbols): • for reactions studied in this specification • for unfamiliar reactions where suitable information is provided
- 1.26 calculate relative formula masses (including relative molecular masses) (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- write word equations from chemical reactions
- write balanced chemical symbol equations
- calculate the relative formula mass of a substance from relative atomic masses.
🔑 Key Words
- balancing equations: a process of putting coefficients in front of formulae so that the same number of atoms of each type is on both sides of an equation
- coefficient: a number written in front of formulae in a balanced chemical equation
- formula: a representation of a chemical showing the elements present and how many atoms are bonded together in each molecule
- relative atomic mass: the weighted average mass of the isotopes of an element, relative to the mass of one-twelfth of a 12C atom
- relative formula mass: the weighted average mass of a formula unit of a compound, relative to the mass of one-twelfth of a 12C atom; it is sometimes called the relative molecular mass, when it refers to covalent molecules
- state symbol: a symbol after each species of an equation that indicates whether it is a solid (s), liquid (l), solution (aq) or gas (g)
- symbol equation: a representation of a chemical reaction using chemical formulae
Lesson 42The Mole→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 44–46
📚 Specification Points
- 1.27 know that the mole (mol) is the unit for the amount of a substance
- 1.28 understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula mass (Mr)
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe what is meant by a mole of particles
- calculate the number of particles in a given number of moles of a substance and vice versa
- calculate the number of moles of particles in a given mass of a certain substance and vice versa
- explain that a balanced equation describes the ratio in which chemicals react.
🔑 Key Words
- Avogadro's number: this is the number of particles in one mole of anything (6.02 × 1023)
- mole: a unit of the amount of a substance; a mole of anything contains the same number of particles as there are carbon atoms in 12 g of 12C (6.02 × 1023) particles
Lesson 43Reacting Masses and Percentage Yield→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 57–58
📚 Specification Points
- 1.28 understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula mass (Mr)
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
- 1.30 calculate percentage yield
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the mass of a reactant needed to produce a given amount of product, using a balanced equation
- calculate the percentage yield of a reaction
- describe some reasons why the actual yield is less than the theoretical yield of a reaction.
🔑 Key Words
- actual yield: the mass of product actually made in a reaction
- mass = molar mass (Mr) \(×\) number of moles
- percentage yield: the actual yield expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield
- theoretical yield: the maximum mass of a product that should be possible to make in a reaction
- yield: the amount of something that is produced in a chemical reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Dilute hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 44Limiting Reagents and Gas Volumes→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 58–59 and 64–67
📚 Specification Points
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
- 1.35C understand how to carry out calculations involving gas volumes and the molar volume of a gas (24 dm³ and 24 000 cm³ at room temperature and pressure (rtp)) Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain that the mass of a product formed in a reaction is controlled by the mass of reactant that is not in excess
- describe the molar volume of any gas at room temperature and pressure as the volume occupied by one mole of molecules of any gas at room temperature and pressure
- use the molar volume in calculations involving solids and gases in reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- excess: having more than enough of a reactant to react with all of something else
- limiting reagent: the reactant that is completely used up during a reaction
- molar gas volume: the volume occupied by one mole of a gas
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Hydrochloric acid is an irritant, avoid contact with skin.
Lesson 45Concentration Calculations→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 66–71
📚 Specification Points
- 1.34C understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, volume, and concentration (in mol/dm³) of solution Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the meaning of the term ‘concentration’
- calculate concentration in g/dm³ and mol/dm³
- calculate amount of substance, volume, and concentration (in mol/dm³) of solution.
🔑 Key Words
- mass concentration = \(\frac{\mathrm{mass}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm a\;\mathrm{solute}}{\mathrm{volume}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{solution}}(\mathrm g/\mathrm{dm}^3)\)
- molar concentration = \(\frac{\mathrm{moles}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm a\;\mathrm{solute}}{\mathrm{volume}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{solution}}(\mathrm{mol}/\mathrm{dm}^3)\)
Lesson 46Core Practical – Empirical Formula→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 46–50
Lab Book: Pages 8–12
📚 Specification Points
- 1.33 calculate empirical and molecular formulae from experimental data
- 1.32 know what is meant by the terms: empirical formula and molecular formula
- 1.36 practical: know how to determine the formula of a metal oxide by combustion (e.g. magnesium oxide) or by reduction (e.g., copper(II) oxide)
- 1.31 understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including metal oxides, water and salts containing water of crystallisation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the empirical formula of a compound from the masses of the elements it contains
- explain the difference between an empirical formula and a molecular formula
- deduce the empirical formula from a molecular formula, and the molecular formula for a compound from its empirical formula and its relative formula mass
- describe an experiment to determine the empirical formula for a compound
- understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including metal oxides.
🔑 Key Words
- empirical formula: gives the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element present in a compound. It can be worked out from experimental data
- molecular formula: shows the actual number of each type of atom present in a molecule (covalent compound) or formula unit (ionic compound)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
Lesson 49Acids, Alkalis, and Indicators→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 167–170
📚 Specification Points
- 2.28 describe the use of litmus, phenolphthalein, and methyl orange to distinguish between acidic and alkaline solutions
- 2.31 know that acids in aqueous solution are a source of hydrogen ions and alkalis in a aqueous solution are a source of hydroxide ions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how an indicator can be used to identify whether a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
- state the acidic, neutral, and alkaline colours for litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange
- state that acidic substances release hydrogen ions when in solution
- state that alkaline substances release hydroxide ions when in solution.
🔑 Key Words
- acid: a substance that acts as a source of hydrogen ions in solution or as a proton donor
- alkali: a soluble base that acts as a source of hydroxide ions in solution or as a proton acceptor
- base: a substance that neutralises acids by combining with the hydrogen ions in them
- indicator: a substance that has different colours depending on the pH
- neutral: a substance with a pH value of 7
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection at all times (sodium hydroxide is corrosive).
- Wipe up spills as soon as possible. Care is required with some indicators, which are highly flammable.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- flammable; keep away from flames (and sources
- corrosive; wear gloves and safety glasses (wash
Lesson 51Neutralisation→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 170–172
📚 Specification Points
- 2.32 know that alkalis can neutralise acids
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that alkalis can neutralise acids
- explain why the solution of a salt and water is neutral
- state that the reaction between alkalis and acids is called neutralisation
- write ionic equations for neutralisation.
🔑 Key Words
- ionic equation: shows only the ions taking part in a reaction
- neutralisation: a chemical reaction in which acids react with bases or alkalis to produce salts
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn.
- Calcium hydroxide is an irritant, with a risk of serious damage to eyes.
- Dilute hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
Lesson 52Concentration and Water of Crystallisation→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 67–69 and 170–172
📚 Specification Points
- 1.34C understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, volume, and concentration (in mol/dm³) of solution Chem only
- 1.31 understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including salts containing water of crystallisation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the meaning of the term ‘mole’
- convert between volume measurements in cm³ and dm³
- calculate the concentration of an acid neutralising an alkali of known concentration and vice-versa
- explain how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including salts containing water of crystallisation.
🔑 Key Words
- hydrated: containing water
- water of crystallisation: water molecules that are part of a crystal structure in which they are chemically bound up with a salt; they are represented by .xH2O in the formulae of compounds, for example CuSO4.5H2O means there are five water molecules associated with each CuSO4 unit
Lesson 53Reactions of Acids→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 167–170, 173–174 and 191
📚 Specification Points
- 2.35 understand acids and bases in terms of proton transfer
- 2.36 understand that an acid is a proton donor, and a base is a proton acceptor
- 2.37 describe the reactions of hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid with metals, bases, and metal carbonates (excluding the reactions between nitric acid and metals) to form salts
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that acids release H⁺ ions and that bases accept H⁺ ions
- describe how acids transfer H⁺ ions to bases
- state the general reactions for acids with metals, bases and carbonates
- state that hydrochloric acid forms chloride salts, sulfuric acid forms sulfate salts and nitric acid forms nitrate salts.
🔑 Key Words
- acid: a substance that acts as a source of hydrogen ions in solution or as a proton donor
- alkali: a soluble base that acts as a source of hydroxide ions in solution or as a proton acceptor
- base: a substance that will react with an acid to form only salt and water
- indicator: a substance that has different colours depending on the pH
- neutral: a substance with a pH value of 7
- proton: a positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
- reactivity series: a list of metals in order of reactivity, with the most reactive metal at the top
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ensure the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ensure the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ensure the laboratory is well ventilated.
Lesson 55Core Practical – Preparing Soluble Salts→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 176–180 and 185–187
Lab Book: Pages 20–22
📚 Specification Points
- 2.39 describe an experiment to prepare a pure, dry sample of a soluble salt, starting from an insoluble reactant
- 2.42 practical: prepare a sample of pure, dry hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals starting from copper(II) oxide
🎯 Learning Objectives
- select the correct insoluble reactant and acid to make a named soluble salt
- describe the experimental procedure to make a soluble salt from a base
- explain the steps used in the method
- describe how to make pure, dry crystals from a solution.
🔑 Key Words
- acid: a substance that acts as a source of hydrogen ions in solution or as a proton donor
- alkali: a soluble base that acts as a source of hydroxide ions in solution or as a proton acceptor
- base: a substance that will react with an acid to form only salt and water
- indicator: a substance that has different colours depending on the pH
- neutral: a substance with a pH value of 7
- proton: a positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
Lesson 56Preparing a Soluble Salt by Titration→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 181–182
📚 Specification Points
- 2.33C describe how to carry out an acid-alkali titration Chem only
- 2.40C describe an experiment to prepare a pure, dry sample of a soluble salt, starting from an acid and alkali Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- select the correct acid and alkali to make a named soluble salt
- describe the experimental procedure of titration
- explain the steps used in the method to get concordant results
- state how to use the titration results to prepare a pure solution of the salt.
🔑 Key Words
- burette: a piece of apparatus used to accurately measure the volume of solution that has been added during a titration
- concordant titres: titres that are close together (usually within 0.10 cm³ of each other)
- endpoint: the point at which the indicator just changes colour
- meniscus: the curving of the upper surface of a liquid in a container; measurements are taken at the lowest (horizontal) part of the meniscus
- pipette: a piece of apparatus used to measure and deliver a known volume of a solution
- titration: a technique in volumetric analysis used to find the exact volume of solutions that react with each other
- titre: the volume added from the burette during a titration
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Place the burette no higher than eye level when you fill it. Do not overfill the burette.
- Dilute hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
- Add the acid drop by drop until the endpoint is reached. Be careful not to go
Lesson 57Core Practical – Preparing Insoluble Salts→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Student Book pages 183–185
Lab Book: Page 23
📚 Specification Points
- 2.34 know the general rules for predicting the solubility of ionic compounds in water: • common sodium, potassium and ammonium compounds are soluble • all nitrates are soluble • common chlorides are soluble, except those of silver and lead(II) • common sulfates are soluble, except for those of barium, calcium and lead(II) • common carbonates are insoluble, except for those of sodium, potassium and ammonium • common hydroxides are insoluble except for those of sodium, potassium and calcium (calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble)
- 2.41C describe an experiment to prepare a pure, dry sample of an insoluble salt, starting from two soluble reactants Chem only
- 2.43C practical: prepare a sample of pure, dry lead(II) sulfate Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know the solubility rules
- determine whether a salt is soluble or insoluble from a chemical equation
- for a named salt, choose a salt preparation method depending on the salt’s solubility
- describe the experimental procedure of preparing an insoluble salt
- explain the steps used in the method to get a pure, dry salt.
🔑 Key Words
- insoluble salt: a salt that does not dissolve in water
- precipitation: a reaction in which two solutions are mixed to form an insoluble solid (precipitate)
- filtration: the separation of an insoluble solid from a liquid using filter paper
- precipitate: an insoluble solid formed in a solution during a chemical reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection, disposable gloves and a safety mask should be worn when doing the demonstration.
- • The demonstration should be carried out in a fume cupboard.
- • Potassium chromate(VI) is toxic and dangerous for the environment. It is a category 2 carcinogen and a category 2 mutagen. It may cause cancer by inhalation and may cause heritable genetic damage.
- • The technician must wear gloves when making up the potassium chromate solution and use a fume cupboard. The solution containing 0.5 g/dm³ is low hazard.
- • Discuss how you could separate the silver chromate(VI) from the mixture, but do not attempt to do this as it may be a carcinogen .
Lesson 59Titration Calculations→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 70–72 and 170–172, 181
📚 Specification Points
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
- 1.34C understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, volume, and concentration (in mol/dm³) of solution Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the number of moles in a solution using volume and concentration
- calculate the moles of one reactant knowing the moles of the other reactant and the equation
- calculate a mean titre value
- calculate the concentration of a solution using titration data.
🔑 Key Words
- titration: a technique used to find the exact volume of one solution needed to react with a known volume of another
- concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of solution
- mole: the amount of substance containing 6.02 × 10²³ particles
Lesson 60Titrations and Volumetric Analysis→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 70–72 and 170–172
📚 Specification Points
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
- 1.34C understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, volume, and concentration (in mol/dm³) of solution Chem only
- 2.33C describe how to carry out an acid-alkali titration Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain each of the techniques in a titration method
- complete a results table for a titration
- calculate the concentration of an acid/alkali using titration data
- describe the steps to take to get concordant titration results.
🔑 Key Words
- titration: a technique for finding the precise volume of a solution needed to react with another
- burette: a piece of apparatus used to measure the volume of solution added during a titration
- pipette: a piece of apparatus used to measure a fixed volume of solution
- end point: the point in a titration where the indicator changes colour permanently
- indicator: a substance that changes colour to show when a reaction is complete
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection must be worn.
Lesson 61Core Practical – The Atmosphere→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 137–141
Lab Book: Pages 16–17
📚 Specification Points
- 2.9 know the approximate percentages by volume of the four most abundant gases in dry air
- 2.10 understand how to determine the percentage by volume of oxygen in air using experiments involving the reactions of metals (e.g., iron) and non-metals (e.g., phosphorus) with air
- 2.14 practical: determine the approximate percentage by volume of oxygen in air using a metal or a non-metal
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the percentage composition of dry air
- state that when some elements oxidise in air, only oxygen is removed from the air, leaving a smaller volume of gas
- describe a method of finding the percentage of oxygen in the air
- calculate the percentage of oxygen in the air
- explain the limitations of these methods.
🔑 Key Words
- atmosphere: layer of gases which surround a planet and are held in place by gravity
- combustion: a chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen (burns) to form products and heat
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn throughout to prevent any tiny pieces from the iron wool getting into eyes.
- Small pieces of iron can be an irritant on the skin, wash off any as soon as possible.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- Eye protection should be worn throughout.
- Eye protection or a face shield should be worn throughout.
- The practical should ideally be carried out in a fume cupboard.
- This is a dangerous experiment and so is a teacher-led demonstration.
Lesson 62The Greenhouse Effect→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 142–143
📚 Specification Points
- 2.13 know that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that increasing amounts in the atmosphere may contribute to climate change
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the meaning of 'greenhouse gas' and ‘greenhouse effect’
- state the common greenhouse gases
- describe the basic processes that add or remove carbon dioxide to/from the atmosphere
- evaluate the evidence that humans are adding carbon dioxide to the air.
🔑 Key Words
- causal link: when one thing can be shown to be causing another thing
- climate change: changes that happen to the global weather patterns as a result of global warming
- correlation: a relationship between two variables, such that if one variable changes so does the other; this can be positive or negative
- emit: give out
- global warming: greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, trap the heat radiated from the Earth’s surface (originally from the Sun) and lead to an increase in the temperature of the Earth and its atmosphere
- greenhouse gas: gases, such as carbon dioxide, which can trap heat radiated from the Earth’s surface (originally from the Sun)
Lesson 64Oxidation Reactions→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 104 and 147
📚 Specification Points
- 2.11 describe the combustion of elements in oxygen, including magnesium, hydrogen and sulfur
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term ‘combustion’
- describe that combustion is an oxidation reaction
- describe the reactions of metals and non-metals with oxygen, including writing equations.
🔑 Key Words
- combustion: a chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen (burns) to form products and heat
- oxidation: gain of oxygen or loss of electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection must be worn.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Carry out this work in a fume cupboard or well-ventilated area.
Lesson 65Decomposition of Carbonates→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 142
📚 Specification Points
- 2.12 describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates, including copper(II) carbonate
🎯 Learning Objectives
- learn the meaning of the term 'decomposition'
- describe how some compounds can be thermally decomposed
- describe an experiment to see how quickly some carbonates decompose
- write equations for thermal decompositions.
🔑 Key Words
- thermal decomposition: the breaking down of a compound into simpler substances using heat
- metal carbonate: a compound containing a metal, carbon and oxygen
- limewater: a solution of calcium hydroxide used to test for carbon dioxide
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Caution with suck back when the students take the boiling tube away from the heat source. Make sure they remove the limewater first.
- Wear eye protection.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 67Introduction to Organic Chemistry→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 255–258
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 know that a hydrocarbon is a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
- 4.2 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define a hydrocarbon as a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
- represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae.
🔑 Key Words
- displayed formula: a formula that shows all the bonds in a molecule as individual lines, each line representing a pair of shared electrons in a covalent bond
- hydrocarbon: a compound consisting of hydrogen and carbon atoms only
- organic compound: a compound that contains carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms
- structural formula: a formula that shows how the atoms are joined together in a molecule, which is often written in a condensed form by omitting all of the carbon–carbon and carbon–hydrogen single bonds
Lesson 69Naming Organic Compounds→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 258–260, 287, 288, 293, 294 and 297–299
📚 Specification Points
- 4.3 know what is meant by the terms homologous series and functional group
- 4.4 understand how to name compounds (containing up to six carbon atoms) using the rules of International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature
🎯 Learning Objectives
- name functional groups and their homologous series
- name alkanes, up to six carbons
- name alkenes, up to six carbons
- name alcohols and carboxylic acids and esters.
🔑 Key Words
- alcohols: a homologous series of compounds that all contain an –OH functional group attached to a hydrocarbon chain
- alkanes: a homologous series of similar hydrocarbons in which all the carbons are joined to each other with single covalent bonds; these are saturated compounds with the general formula CnH2n+2
- alkenes: a homologous series of hydrocarbons that contain a carbon–carbon double bond; these are unsaturated compounds with the general formula CnH2n
- carboxylic acids: a homologous series of compounds that all contain a –COOH functional group attached to a hydrocarbon chain
- esters: a group of organic compounds formed by the reaction of an alcohol and a carboxylic acid; they have the functional group –COO–.
- functional group: an atom or a group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a compound
- general formula: a formula applicable to all members of a homologous series, for example CnH2n+2 for alkanes, and CnH2n for alkenes
- homologous series: a series of compounds with similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group; each member differs from the next by –CH2– and the members show a gradual change in properties
- saturated compound: a compound containing only carbon–carbon single bonds with no carbon–carbon double or triple bonds
- unsaturated compound: a compound containing one or more carbon–carbon double or triple bonds
Lesson 70Isomers→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 261–264
📚 Specification Points
- 4.2 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
- 4.3 know what is meant by the term isomerism
- 4.5 understand how to write the possible structural and displayed formulae of an organic molecule given its molecular formula
🎯 Learning Objectives
- that carbon always forms four covalent bonds
- the meaning of the term 'isomer'
- to draw and name all isomers of a molecule.
🔑 Key Words
- structural isomerism: the existence of two or more different structures with the same molecular formula
- structural isomers: molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae
Lesson 71Empirical Formulae→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 46–47, 256–258
📚 Specification Points
- 4.2 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
- 4.5 understand how to write the possible structural and displayed formulae of an organic molecule given its molecular formula
🎯 Learning Objectives
- deduce the molecular formula from a displayed or structural formula
- deduce the empirical formula given the molecular formula
- write possible molecular formulae and also structural formulae given the empirical formula
- calculate the empirical and molecular formula of an organic molecule from data.
🔑 Key Words
- empirical formula: gives the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms of each element present in a compound. It can be worked out from experimental data
- molecular formula: shows the actual number of each type of atom present in a molecule (covalent compound) or formula unit (ionic compound)
Lesson 72Types of Organic Reactions→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 264–265, 271, 279, 280 and 283
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 understand how to classify reactions of organic compounds as substitution, addition and combustion, knowledge of reaction mechanisms is not required
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand what a substitution reaction is
- understand what an addition reaction is
- understand what a combustion reaction is
- identify the reaction type from given information.
🔑 Key Words
- addition: a chemical reaction in which one molecule adds to another without taking anything away, to form a single product (for example, when alkenes react with halogens and the halogen atoms are added onto the alkene molecule)
- substitution: a chemical reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by a different atom or group of atoms (for example, when alkanes react with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet light and the hydrogen atoms in the alkanes are replaced by halogen atoms)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
Lesson 73Crude Oil→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 268–270
📚 Specification Points
- 4.7 know that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons
- 4.8 describe how the industrial process of fractional distillation separates crude oil into fractions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that crude oil is a raw material in limited supply
- state that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules
- describe how fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into fractions
- explain that fractions are still mixtures.
🔑 Key Words
- crude oil: formed from the remains of living organisms when their soft tissue was gradually changed by high temperatures and pressures into a thick, black oil; it is a mixture of hydrocarbons
- fractions: groups of compounds collected when a mixture is separated by fractional distillation
- viscous: a liquid that is resistant to flow
- volatile: a substance that evaporates easily
Lesson 75Hydrocarbons as Fuels→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 270–271, 279
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11 know that a fuel is a substance that, when burned, releases heat energy
- 4.12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
- 4.13 understand why carbon monoxide is poisonous, in terms of its effect on the capacity of blood to transport oxygen (references to haemoglobin are not required)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the meaning of the term ‘fuel’
- state that full (complete) combustion of hydrocarbons releases carbon dioxide and water
- state the conditions leading to incomplete combustion
- explain why carbon monoxide forms in incomplete combustion
- explain why carbon monoxide is toxic.
🔑 Key Words
- complete combustion: occurs when a hydrocarbon burns in sufficient oxygen; carbon dioxide and water are formed as products
- incomplete combustion: occurs when a hydrocarbon burns in insufficient oxygen; water is still formed as a product, but carbon monoxide and carbon are formed instead of carbon dioxide
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection. Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is harmful and irritating to the eyes and skin.
- • Cobalt chloride is toxic: use forceps to handle the dry cobalt chloride paper, if this is used.
- • Ask students questions about each of the parts of the apparatus: Why is a glass funnel used? (Answer: Plastic would melt; traps any soot produced.) What is being tested for in the U-shaped tube? (Answer: Water vapour) Why is iced water needed around the U-shaped tube? (Answer: To cool the water vapour so it becomes water; it makes it easier for the anhydrous copper sulfate to become hydrated copper sulfate as the vapour might pass through too quickly to cause any change in the anhydrous copper sulfate.) What is the expected colour change of anhydrous copper sulfate? (Answer: It is white when copper sulfate is in the anhydrous form and becomes hydrated blue copper sulfate if there is any water present.) What is being tested for with the limewater? (Answer: Carbon dioxide) What is the positive result for carbon dioxide with the limewater? (Answer: The limewater turns milky white/cloudy.) Discuss the hazard of carbon monoxide and the problems of gas and soot from appliances. (Answer: If insufficient oxygen is present, then soot will form on objects. Soot can block pipes carrying waste gases from an appliance, blacken buildings and cause breathing problems; carbon monoxide, which is toxic, can be produced; it combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells preventing oxygen from combining with the haemoglobin; so reduces amount of oxygen carried in the bloodstream; causing affected people to feel sleepy or drowsy; this can lead to unconsciousness and even death.)
Lesson 76Acid Rain→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 273
📚 Specification Points
- 4.14 know that, in car engines, the temperature reached is high enough to allow nitrogen and oxygen from air to react, forming oxides of nitrogen
- 4.15 explain how the combustion of some impurities in hydrocarbon fuels results in the formation of sulfur dioxide
- 4.16 understand how sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen contribute to acid rain
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why nitrogen is inert, but that it will react in an engine
- explain how sulfur dioxide can be formed during combustion
- state how sulfur and nitrogen oxides form acid rain
- describe some of the consequences of acid rain.
🔑 Key Words
- acid rain: rain which has a pH of less than about 5.6; it is caused when water and oxygen in the atmosphere react with sulfur dioxide to produce sulfuric acid or with various oxides of nitrogen, NOx, to give nitric acid
- impurities: unwanted substances found mixed into a useful substance
- pollutant: a substance that harms living organisms when released into the environment
- scrubbing: removing pollutant gases from the gases produced in a combustion reaction
- weathering: when rocks are broken up by physical, chemical or biological processes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Carry out the demonstration in a fume cupboard or ensure adequate ventilation in the laboratory.
- • Sulfur dioxide gas is toxic and has a choking smell. It can also trigger asthma attacks – avoid excessive escape from the gas jar.
- • OPTIONAL: If the demonstration cannot be carried out, display the Image: Burning sulfur .
- • Wear eye protection as 0.5 mol/dm³ sulfuric acid and 0.4 mol/dm³ nitric acid are irritants.
- • Take care not to jam the samples in the test tube.
- • To avoid blocking the sinks, pour the used contents of the test tubes into a sieve and bowl.
Lesson 77Alkanes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 277–279
📚 Specification Points
- 4.19 know the general formula for alkanes
- 4.20 explain why alkanes are classified as saturated hydrocarbons
- 4.21 understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkanes with up to five carbon atoms in the molecule, and to name the unbranched-chain isomers
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the general formula of the alkane homologous series
- deduce the molecular formula of an alkane using the general formula
- draw all isomers of alkanes up to five carbon atoms
- recognise unbranched alkanes from the molecular, structural or displayed formulae.
🔑 Key Words
- functional group: an atom or a group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a compound
- homologous series: a series of compounds with similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group; each member differs from the next by –CH2– and members show a gradual change in properties
Lesson 78Reactions of Alkanes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 279–280
📚 Specification Points
- 4.12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
- 4.22 describe the reactions of alkanes with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet radiation, limited to mono-substitution (knowledge of reaction mechanisms is not required)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand that alkanes can fully combust in air
- describe when incomplete combustion occurs
- understand the conditions for the reaction of alkanes with halogens
- write equations for the substitution reactions of alkanes.
🔑 Key Words
- complete combustion: the process of a hydrocarbon burning in sufficient oxygen, to produce only carbon dioxide and water as products
- incomplete combustion: the process of a hydrocarbon burning in insufficient oxygen, to produce carbon monoxide or carbon instead of carbon dioxide, as well as water
- mono-substitution: a substitution reaction in which only one hydrogen atom in an alkane is replaced by a halogen atom
- soot: black powder consisting largely of carbon
- ultraviolet radiation: the part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum that has wavelengths between those of visible light and X-rays, which is invisible to the human eye
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas that prevents the transport of oxygen around the
- Carbon monoxide is toxic, meaning it can kill people.
- Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas produced during
Lesson 79Cracking→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 273–275 and 277–279
📚 Specification Points
- 4.17 describe how long-chain alkanes are converted to alkenes and shorter-chain alkanes by catalytic cracking (using silica or alumina as the catalyst and a temperature in the range of 600–700 °C)
- 4.18 explain why cracking is necessary, in terms of the balance between supply and demand for different fractions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why there is a surplus of some fractions and a shortage of others
- explain why cracking is economically beneficial
- describe how cracking is carried out
- describe the products of cracking and their uses
- write equations for cracking reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- cracking: a process in which long-chain alkanes are converted to alkenes and shorter-chain alkanes; it is carried out using silica or alumina as a catalyst at a temperature of 600–700 °C
- polymer: a large molecule made when many small molecules (monomers) join together; it consists of many repeating units
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Paraffin oil and its products are highly flammable.
- • Bromine water is harmful.
- • Ensure lab is well ventilated.
- • If the delivery tube is left in the water, ‘suck-back’ will occur and cold water will damage the hot apparatus.
Lesson 81Core Practical – Heat Changes In Reactions→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 207, 209 and 216–217
Lab Book: Pages 24, 29–30
📚 Specification Points
- 3.1 know that chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out are described as exothermic, and those in which heat energy is taken in are described as endothermic
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as dissolving
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • salts dissolving in water
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that most reactions release heat energy, and these are called exothermic reactions
- state that some reactions absorb heat energy, and these are called endothermic reactions
- state that temperature change is used to identify these reaction types
- describe how heat changes in solution may be determined experimentally.
🔑 Key Words
- calorimetry: measuring the heat given out or taken in by a chemical reaction
- endothermic: reactions in which heat energy is taken in from the surroundings
- enthalpy change: the amount of energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction; it has the symbol ∆H
- exothermic: reactions in which heat energy is given out to the surroundings
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Ammonium chloride is harmful. Avoid contact with your skin.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 209–211 and 217–219
Lab Book: Pages 24–28
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as neutralisation
- 3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
- 3.4 calculate the molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy change, Q
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • neutralisation reactions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate a heat change from temperature change data
- calculate the molar enthalpy change from the heat change
- describe the practical technique used to measure temperature change for neutralisation reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- enthalpy change: the amount of heat energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction; it is the difference between the energy of products and the energy of the reactants
- specific heat capacity: the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 °C
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • 1.0 mol/dm³ sodium hydroxide is corrosive and very damaging to eyes.
- • Care is needed with solutions of acid. Wash off splashes immediately.
- • Wear eye protection and disposable gloves.
- • Take care with the hot, and cold, solutions.
- • Both reactions produce hydrochloric acid, which is corrosive.
- • It may help if students are told that the water, thermometer and boiling tube are part of the surroundings and that energy is transferred from or to the dissolving substance by heating.
Lesson 83Core Practical – Energy Level Diagrams→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 209–210 and 215–216
Lab Book: Pages 24, 31–33
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as displacement
- 3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
- 3.4 calculate the molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy change, Q
- 3.5C draw and explain energy level diagrams to represent exothermic and endothermic reactions Chem only
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • displacement reactions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the practical technique to measure temperature change for displacement reactions
- state that in exothermic reactions the products contain less energy than the reactants
- state that in endothermic reactions the products contain more energy than the reactants
- draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- exothermic reaction: a reaction that transfers energy to the surroundings, causing a temperature increase
- endothermic reaction: a reaction that takes in energy from the surroundings, causing a temperature decrease
- energy level diagram: a diagram showing the relative energy levels of reactants and products
- calorimetry: measuring the heat energy change during a chemical reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Copper(II) sulfate is harmful and an irritant.
- • Zinc powder is flammable and hazardous to the environment.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 211–214
Lab Book: Pages 24, 34–36
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as combustion
- 3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
- 3.4 calculate the molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy change, Q
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • combustion reactions.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a practical technique to measure temperature change for combustion reactions
- explain why a different technique is needed to measure the heat change in a combustion reaction
- explain why the heat change measured is inaccurate.
🔑 Key Words
- enthalpy change: the amount of energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction; it has the symbol ∆H
- exothermic: reactions in which heat energy is given out to the surroundings
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • All alcohols are flammable: handle with care and keep the tops on burners when not in use.
Lesson 85Bond Breaking and Bond Making→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 219–220
📚 Specification Points
- 3.6C know that bond-breaking is an endothermic process and that bond-making is an exothermic process Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why bond breaking is endothermic
- explain why bond making is exothermic
- state the relationship between bond energy and bond strength.
🔑 Key Words
- bond breaking: the process of separating atoms in a chemical bond, which requires energy (endothermic)
- bond making: the process of forming new chemical bonds, which releases energy (exothermic)
- enthalpy change: the overall energy change during a chemical reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
Lesson 86Bond Energy Calculations→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 219–222
📚 Specification Points
- 3.7C use bond energies to calculate the enthalpy change during a chemical reaction Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate a molar enthalpy change from bond energies
- calculate the energy required to break bonds in the reactant molecules
- calculate the energy released to make bonds in the product molecules
- calculate the net enthalpy change
- explain why a reaction is exothermic or endothermic in terms of bond energies.
🔑 Key Words
- bond energy: the amount of energy needed to break one mole of a particular covalent bond
- enthalpy change (ΔH): the difference between the energy needed to break bonds and the energy released when new bonds form
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • Hydrogen is highly flammable. Do not carry out with a mix of hydrogen and oxygen.
- • 1 mol/dm³ sulfuric acid is irritant, but 2 mol/dm³ magnesium sulfate is low hazard.
Lesson 87Reversible Reactions→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 240–241
📚 Specification Points
- 3.17 know that some reactions are reversible, and this is indicated by the symbol ⇌ in equations
- 3.18 describe reversible reactions such as the dehydration of hydrated copper(II) sulfate and the effect of heat on ammonium chloride
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that reversible reactions are when the products react to produce the original reactants
- describe the reversible reactions of dehydration and hydration of copper(II) sulfate
- describe the observations of the reversible thermal decomposition of ammonium chloride.
🔑 Key Words
- reversible reaction: a reaction that can proceed in both the forward and backward directions
- equilibrium: the state in a reversible reaction when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction
- hydrated: containing water molecules within the crystal structure
- anhydrous: without water of crystallisation
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ammonium chloride is an irritant, wash it off your skin with plenty of water.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Avoid getting copper(II) sulfate on your skin and wash your hands after the experiment.
- • Copper(II) sulfate(VI)-5-water (powdered) is harmful. It is harmful if swallowed (especially saturated solutions for crystal growing); the solid may irritate the eyes and skin.
- • Do not heat copper(II) sulfate strongly as it can decompose into sulfur oxides, which are toxic. Use a spirit burner if possible.
- • Addition of water to anhydrous (white) copper(II) sulfate is exothermic. Do NOT hold the tube.
Lesson 88Equilibrium→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 241–242
📚 Specification Points
- 3.19C know that a reversible reaction can reach dynamic equilibrium in a sealed container Chem only
- 3.20C know that the characteristics of a reaction at dynamic equilibrium are: • the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate • the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the term dynamic equilibrium
- explain why it takes time for a system to reach equilibrium
- describe the conditions under which a reversible reaction can reach equilibrium.
🔑 Key Words
- closed system: when substances cannot enter or leave an observed environment, e.g., a stoppered test tube
- dynamic equilibrium: when the forward and backward reactions in a reversible chemical reaction are occurring at the same rate
- forward reaction: from reactants to products (the left-to-right reaction)
- open system: a system into or from which substances can enter or leave, such as a reaction inside an open test tube
- reverse reaction: from products to reactants (the right-to-left reaction); the reverse reaction is also known as the backward reaction
Lesson 89Changes in Position of Equilibrium→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 242–246
📚 Specification Points
- 3.22C know the effect of changing either temperature or pressure on the position of equilibrium in a reversible reaction: • an increase (or decrease) in temperature shifts the position of equilibrium in the direction of the endothermic (or exothermic) reaction • an increase (or decrease) in pressure shifts the position of equilibrium in the direction that produces fewer (or more) moles of gas (references to Le Chatelier's principle are not required) Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the term position of equilibrium
- explain how a change in temperature will affect the position of equilibrium
- explain how a change in pressure may affect the position of equilibrium
- explain the change in position of equilibrium, if any, as temperature and pressure are altered.
🔑 Key Words
- position of equilibrium: a reference to the proportion of the various things in an equilibrium mixture; if the position of equilibrium of a reaction lies towards the right, the equilibrium mixture contains a higher proportion of products than reactants
- pressure: the force acting on something per unit area; pressure has the SI unit of Pa (N/m²) and is caused by molecules hitting the wall of their container
Lesson 90Choosing Conditions for Maximum Equilibrium Yield→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 243–246
📚 Specification Points
- 3.22C know the effect of changing either temperature or pressure on the position of equilibrium in a reversible reaction: • an increase (or decrease) in temperature shifts the position of equilibrium in the direction of the endothermic (or exothermic) reaction • an increase (or decrease) in pressure shifts the position of equilibrium in the direction that produces fewer (or more) moles of gas (references to Le Chatelier's principle are not required) Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- predict whether a higher or lower temperature gives the better yield
- predict whether a higher or lower pressure gives a better yield
- justify a temperature and pressure chosen for an industrial process in terms of yield, rate and cost.
🔑 Key Words
- equilibrium yield: the amount of product formed when a reversible reaction reaches equilibrium
- Le Chatelier's principle: if a change is made to the conditions of a system at equilibrium, the position of equilibrium shifts to counteract the change
- position of equilibrium: indicates whether the forward or backward reaction is favoured
Lesson 91Catalysts in Equilibria→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 235–238
📚 Specification Points
- 3.21C understand why a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium in a reversible reaction Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium
- state why catalysts are used in industrial processes
- explain all the conditions used in an industrial process.
🔑 Key Words
- catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being chemically changed
- equilibrium: the state where the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate
- rate of reaction: the speed at which reactants are converted into products
Lesson 92Alkenes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 282–283
📚 Specification Points
- 4.23 know that alkenes contain the functional group >C=C<
- 4.24 know the general formula for alkenes
- 4.25 explain why alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons
- 4.26 understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkenes with up to four carbon atoms in the molecule, and name the unbranched-chain isomers (knowledge of cis/trans or E/Z notation is not required)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons
- identify an alkene from the molecular formula
- draw the structural and displayed formulae of unbranched alkenes.
🔑 Key Words
- alkene: an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C)
- unsaturated: a molecule that contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond
- general formula: a formula that represents any member of a homologous series; for alkenes it is CₙH₂ₙ
- functional group: the reactive part of a molecule; in alkenes this is the C=C double bond
Lesson 93Reactions of Alkenes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 283–284
📚 Specification Points
- 4.12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
- 4.27 describe the reactions of alkenes with bromine to produce dibromoalkanes
- 4.28 describe how bromine water can be used to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that alkenes can combust in air
- state that alkanes cannot undergo addition reactions, but alkenes can
- write equations, including using structural formulae, for addition reactions
- describe how to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene.
🔑 Key Words
- addition reaction: a reaction in which atoms are added across a double bond in an unsaturated molecule
- dibromoalkane: the product formed when bromine reacts with an alkene
- bromine water test: a test to distinguish between alkanes and alkenes; alkenes decolourise bromine water
- combustion: a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing heat and light
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Cyclohexane and cyclohexene are highly flammable; there must not be any naked flames in the laboratory.
- • These chemicals are also harmful. Bromine water is harmful at this concentration (0.02 mol/dm³ ).
Lesson 95Alcohols→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 287–290
📚 Specification Points
- 4.29C know that alcohols contain the functional group −OH Chem only
- 4.30C understand how to draw structural and displayed formulae for methanol, ethanol, propanol (propan-1-ol only) and butanol (butan-1-ol only), and name each compound the names propanol and butanol are acceptable Chem only
- 4.31C know that ethanol can be oxidised by: • burning in air or oxygen (complete combustion) • reaction with oxygen in the air to form ethanoic acid (microbial oxidation) • heating with potassium dichromate(VI) in dilute sulfuric acid to form ethanoic acid Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that alcohols contain the functional group −OH
- identify an alcohol from a structural formula
- draw the structures of the first four alcohols
- state that alcohols burn in air
- explain why alcohols can be used as fuels.
🔑 Key Words
- biofuel: a fuel that is made from biological sources, such as sugar cane or corn
- non-renewable resource: a finite resource that cannot be replaced, at least not for millions of years
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • All alcohols are highly flammable – handle with care and keep bottles away from flames.
Lesson 97Manufacturing Ethanol by Hydration→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 287–291
📚 Specification Points
- 4.32C know that ethanol can be manufactured by: • reacting ethene with steam in the presence of a phosphoric acid catalyst at a temperature of about 300 °C and a pressure of about 60–70 atm • the fermentation of glucose, in the absence of air, at an optimum temperature of about 30 °C and using the enzymes in yeast Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain how ethanol is manufactured by hydration of ethene
- state the conditions used in this process
- list some of the uses of alcohols.
🔑 Key Words
- feedstock: a raw material which is used to provide reactants in industrial reactions
- hydration: the addition of water molecules to an unsaturated molecule, for example converting ethene to ethanol
Lesson 99Carboxylic Acids→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 293–295
📚 Specification Points
- 4.34C know that carboxylic acids contain the functional group Chem only
- 4.35C understand how to draw structural and displayed formulae for unbranched-chain carboxylic acids with up to four carbon atoms in the molecule, and name each compound Chem only
- 4.31C know that ethanol can be oxidised by: • burning in air or oxygen (complete combustion) • reaction with oxygen in the air to form ethanoic acid (microbial oxidation) • heating with potassium dichromate(VI) in dilute sulfuric acid to form ethanoic acid Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify a carboxylic acid from a structural formula
- draw the structures of the first four carboxylic acids
- name carboxylic acids
- describe how carboxylic acids are formed.
🔑 Key Words
- carboxylic acid: an organic compound containing the functional group -COOH
- ethanoic acid: a carboxylic acid with the formula CH₃COOH
- oxidation: a reaction involving the gain of oxygen or loss of electrons
- functional group: the part of a molecule responsible for its chemical reactions
Lesson 100Reactions of Carboxylic Acids→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 289–295
📚 Specification Points
- 4.37C know that vinegar is an aqueous solution containing ethanoic acid Chem only
- 4.36C describe the reactions of aqueous solutions of carboxylic acids with metals and metal carbonates Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why carboxylic acids behave as acids
- state that vinegar is impure, aqueous ethanoic acid
- describe the typical acid reactions with metals and metal carbonates.
🔑 Key Words
- vinegar: an aqueous solution containing ethanoic acid
- neutralisation: a reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water
- salt: a compound formed when the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal or ammonium ion
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • At these concentrations, the dilute methanoic, ethanoic and propanoic acids are all irritants.
- • All splashes and spills should be cleaned up immediately.
- • The magnesium ribbon is highly flammable and should be kept away from flames.
Lesson 103Esters→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 298–299
📚 Specification Points
- 4.38C know that esters contain the functional group Chem only
- 4.39C know that ethyl ethanoate is the ester produced when ethanol and ethanoic acid react in the presence of an acid catalyst Chem only
- 4.40C understand how to write the structural and displayed formulae of ethyl ethanoate Chem only
- 4.41C understand how to write the structural and displayed formulae of an ester, given the name or formula of the alcohol and carboxylic acid from which it is formed and vice versa Chem only
- 4.42C know that esters are volatile compounds with distinctive smells and are used as food flavourings and in perfumes Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify esters from their structural or displayed formulae
- know how esters are made by reacting alcohols with carboxylic acids
- be able to deduce the formula of an ester formed from a named alcohol and named carboxylic acid
- know some properties and uses of esters.
🔑 Key Words
- condensation reaction: a chemical reaction in which two molecules combine to form a larger molecule with elimination of a small molecule such as water
- esterification: a chemical reaction in which an alcohol and a carboxylic acid react together to form an ester
Lesson 104Preparing Esters→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Page 300
Lab Book: Pages 45–46
📚 Specification Points
- 4.43C practical: prepare a sample of an ester such as ethyl ethanoate Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the practical details of how an ester is made
- manage the hazards involved in an organic preparation
- write equations for ester formations.
🔑 Key Words
- condensation reaction: a chemical reaction in which two molecules combine to form a larger molecule with elimination of a small molecule such as water
- esterification: a chemical reaction in which an alcohol and a carboxylic acid react together to form an ester
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Gloves may be worn in this practical.
- • Concentrated sulfuric acid is highly corrosive. Your teacher may add this to your experiment. You might be asked to work in a fume cupboard.
- • Concentrated ethanoic acid is corrosive. Your teacher will dispense ethanoic acid in a fume cupboard.
- • Ethanol is flammable and harmful. Keep it away from sources of ignition.
- • Ethyl ethanoate is flammable and an irritant. Keep it away from sources of ignition.
- • Hold the beaker at arm’s length when smelling the ester and waft the smell towards you. If you cannot smell it, move the beaker a little closer and repeat.
- • If your teacher provides you with other substances to make different esters, they will provide additional safety guidance if required.
Lesson 105Addition Polymers→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 302–307
📚 Specification Points
- 4.44 know that an addition polymer is formed by joining up many small molecules called monomers
- 4.45 understand how to draw the repeat unit of an addition polymer, including poly(ethene), poly(propene), poly(chloroethene) and poly(tetrafluoroethene)
- 4.46 understand how to deduce the structure of a monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer and vice versa
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that a polymer is a long-chain molecule consisting of repeating units, called monomers
- explain how a polymer can be formed from many alkene monomers
- state that alkenes form polymers by addition polymerisation
- identify the monomer of a polymer and vice-versa.
🔑 Key Words
- addition polymerisation: a type of polymerisation in which the monomers add on to each other and no small molecules are eliminated
- monomers: molecules that can join to form a polymer
- polymer: a large molecule made when many small molecules (monomers) join together
- polymerisation: the joining of lots of small molecules (monomers) to make one big molecule (polymer)
Lesson 106Polymer Disposal→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 307–308
📚 Specification Points
- 4.47 explain problems in the disposal of addition polymers, including: • their inertness and inability to biodegrade • the production of toxic gases when they are burned
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the problems of addition polymer disposal that are caused by their inertness and inability to biodegrade
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of recycling addition polymers
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of disposing of addition polymers in landfill
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of the incineration of addition polymers.
🔑 Key Words
- biodegradable: able to be broken down by bacteria or fungi in the environment
- incinerate: the burning of waste in a furnace; incinerators can capture waste gases or use the heat produced to generate electricity
- inert: unreactive
- landfill: an area of land used as a location to dispose of waste materials
- non-biodegradable: unable to be broken down by bacteria or fungi in the environment
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- an area of land used as a location to dispose of
- The ash produced can be toxic so still needs to be disposed of in landfill sites
- Releases harmful and toxic gases.
- an area of land used as a location to dispose of waste materials
- Plastics are non-biodegradable, so they do not rot and are difficult to dispose of.
Lesson 107Condensation Polymers→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 308–310
📚 Specification Points
- 4.48C know that condensation polymerisation, in which a dicarboxylic acid reacts with a diol, produces a polyester and water Chem only
- 4.49C understand how to write the structural and displayed formula of a polyester, showing the repeat unit, given the formulae of the monomers from which it is formed including the reaction of ethanedioic acid and ethanediol Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what is meant by a condensation reaction
- state why two different monomers are needed to form a condensation polymer
- identify the monomer of a polymer and vice-versa.
🔑 Key Words
- condensation polymerisation: a reaction in which monomers join together with the loss of a small molecule such as water
- polyester: a polymer formed by the condensation reaction of a diol and a dicarboxylic acid
- dicarboxylic acid: an organic molecule with two -COOH groups
- diol: an organic molecule with two -OH groups
- monomer: a small molecule that can join with others to form a polymer
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection or a face shield. Wear disposable nitrile gloves. 1,6-diaminohexane is corrosive. Decanedioyl chloride and hexanedioyl chloride are corrosive. Cyclohexane is highly flammable. Students should only handle the nylon thread if they are wearing disposable nitrile gloves.
- • Ensure room is well ventilated and that there are no sources of ignition.
- • Dispose of the produced nylon by rinsing with water, wrapping it in paper towels and placing it with non-recycling waste.
- • Wear eye protection.
Lesson 108Condensation Polymer Disposal→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 307–310
📚 Specification Points
- 4.47 explain problems in the disposal of addition polymers, including: • their inertness and inability to biodegrade • the production of toxic gases when they are burned
- 4.50C know that some polyesters, known as biopolyesters, are biodegradable Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why some polymers are biodegradable
- state the uses that can be made of biodegradable polymers and their limitations
- state the advantages of a biodegradable polymer
- evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of recycling polymers.
🔑 Key Words
- biodegradable: able to be broken down by living organisms such as bacteria
- biopolyester: a polyester that is biodegradable
- addition polymer: a polymer formed from unsaturated monomers without the loss of any atoms
- inert: chemically unreactive; difficult to break down
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- too dangerous to incinerate.
- These will need to be disposed of at landfill sites.
Lesson 109Introduction to Electrolysis→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 76, 92, 96, 101–102
📚 Specification Points
- 1.55C understand why covalent compounds do not conduct electricity Chem only
- 1.56C understand why ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in aqueous solution Chem only
- 1.57C know that anion and cation are terms used to refer to negative and positive ions respectively Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that moving charged particles form a current
- explain, in terms of free electrons, why covalent substances do not conduct electricity but metals and graphite do
- explain, in terms of moving ions – anions and cations, that ionic compounds can conduct electricity only when molten or dissolved.
🔑 Key Words
- anode: the positive electrode in electrolysis, which attracts negative anions
- cathode: the negative electrode in electrolysis, which attracts positive cations
- electrode: a conductor through which electricity is passed into and out of an electrolyte
- electrolytic cell: a compartment in which electrolysis occurs
Lesson 110Electrolysis of Molten Compounds→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 103–106
📚 Specification Points
- 1.58C describe experiments to investigate electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of molten compounds (including lead(II) bromide) and aqueous solutions (including sodium chloride, dilute sulfuric acid and copper(II) sulfate) and to predict the products Chem only
- 1.59C write ionic half-equations representing the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis and understand why these reactions are classified as oxidation or reduction Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the components of an electrolytic cell
- explain why an ionic compound must be heated to undergo electrolysis
- predict the products from a molten electrolyte at each electrode
- write half-equations and identify what is oxidised and what is reduced.
🔑 Key Words
- decomposition reaction: a chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into its elements or simpler compounds
- discharged: when an ion has lost its charge by losing or gaining electrons
- half-equation: a balanced symbol equation to describe either oxidation or reduction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Copper sulfate is harmful if swallowed and an irritant. Wear eye protection and avoid skin contact.
- Take care with electrical equipment. Do not connect circuits to mains. Switch off power before changing connections.
Lesson 111Electrolysis of Aqueous Compounds→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 106–109
📚 Specification Points
- 1.56C understand why ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in aqueous solution Chem only
- 1.58C describe experiments to investigate electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of molten compounds (including lead(II) bromide) and aqueous solutions (including sodium chloride, dilute sulfuric acid and copper(II) sulfate) and to predict the products Chem only
- 1.59C write ionic half-equations representing the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis and understand why these reactions are classified as oxidation or reduction Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why an ionic compound must be dissolved in order to conduct electricity
- predict the products from an aqueous electrolyte at each electrode
- write half-equations and identify what is oxidised and what is reduced.
🔑 Key Words
- anode: the positive electrode in electrolysis, which attracts negative anions
- cathode: the negative electrode in electrolysis, which attracts positive cations
- electrode: a conductor through which electricity is passed into and out of an electrolyte
- electrolytic cell: a compartment in which electrolysis occurs
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 106–109
Lab Book: Pages 12–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.60C practical: investigate the electrolysis of aqueous solutions Chem only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how an electrolytic cell is set up for aqueous electrolytes, including the collection of gas products
- predict the products from an aqueous electrolyte at each electrode
- write half-equations and identify what is oxidised and what is reduced.
🔑 Key Words
- anode: the positive electrode in electrolysis, which attracts negative anions
- cathode: the negative electrode in electrolysis, which attracts positive cations
- electrode: a conductor through which electricity is passed into and out of an electrolyte
- electrolytic cell: a compartment in which electrolysis occurs
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • 0.1 mol/dm³ sulfuric acid and 0.1 mol/dm³ copper(II) sulfate are irritants.
- • Chlorine gas is toxic and is produced in some of the experiments. Only run the experiment to test the gas. Ensure the lab is well-ventilated (open to fresh air).
- • Hydrogen is extremely flammable.
- • Take care with aqueous solutions and electricity. Do not use a voltage higher than 6 V and only switch on the circuit when it is fully set up. If you are unsure, ask your teacher to check your set-up.
- • If your teacher provides you with other solutions to test, they will provide you with additional safety guidance if required.
Single Science Physics — 4PH0 All Physics lessons including Physics-only spec points.
Lesson 1Distance–Time Graphs→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 4–6 and 15–16
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/(second)2 (m/s2), newton (N), second (s) and newton/kilogram (N/kg)
- 1.3 plot and explain distance–time graphs
- 1.4 know and use the relationship between average speed, distance moved and time taken: average speed = (distance moved)/(time taken)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use distance–time graphs to analyse the motion of an object
- sketch distance–time graphs for the motion of an object
- use the average speed equation to calculate speed, distance or time taken.
🔑 Key Words
- accelerating: getting faster
- acceleration: the rate of change of increasing velocity
- average speed = \(\frac{\mathrm{distance}\;\mathrm{moved}}{\mathrm{time}\;\mathrm{taken}}\)
- decelerating: getting slower
- deceleration: the rate of change of decreasing velocity
- distance–time graph: a graph showing distance travelled at certain intervals of time
- gradient: the slope of a line or surface
Lesson 2Investigating Motion→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 2–8
Lab Book: Pages 2–5
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the motion of a toy car
- analyse data and describe motion.
🔑 Key Words
- anomalous result: a result that does not fit the pattern, also called an anomaly
- hypothesis: this is an idea about how something works that can be tested with experiments
- mean: the average value calculated when all the numbers are added together and divided by the number of readings
- parallax error: type of error that occurs when your eye is not directly in front of or above the measuring instrument, but at an angle
- perpendicular: at right angles/at 90°
- prediction: this describes what will happen in the experiment if the hypothesis is correct
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students need to take a large number of measurements to complete this practical. There are two ways to do this. You need to select the option based on class size and time available: Option 1: Assign specific measurements to groups of students, as explained below, and then pool the results to make a whole-class results table. If you choose this option, you’ll have to specify the starting height and all the subsequent values for the height (found before the lesson starts). The maximum height should not exceed 30 cm. Option 2: Alternatively, let each group take all the measurements. This option is likely to take up the remainder of the lesson, meaning that the analysis and evaluation work in Task 2 and the End-of-lesson activity may need to take place in a second session. If you choose this option, you will have to specify the starting height for students, which you would have to find before the start of the lesson according to the instructions in the practical’s method. You can then either choose to specify all subsequent values as well, or let students choose their own values. If that’s the case, tell students: You’ll be choosing your own values for the height increase, but the maximum height should not exceed 30 cm since this can cause the car to reach relatively high speeds and cause damage .
Lesson 3Identifying Forces→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 18–20, 26 and 34
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N), second (s) and newton/kilogram (N/kg)
- 1.12 identify different types of force such as gravitational or electrostatic
- 1.13 understand how vector quantities differ from scalar quantities
- 1.14 understand that force is a vector quantity
- 1.16 know that friction is a force that opposes motion
- 1.18 know and use the relationship between weight, mass and gravitational field strength: weight = mass × gravitational field strength W = m × g
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the features of vectors and scalars
- give examples of vector and scalar quantities
- identify different types of force
- define and calculate weight.
🔑 Key Words
- drag or air resistance: a force between a moving object and the fluid (liquid or gas) in which it is moving
- friction: a force between two solid surfaces trying to move across each other that tries to stop movement happening
- gravitational field strength (g): the size of the effect of gravity acting on an object (measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg))
- mass: the amount of matter in a body (measured in kilograms (kg))
- newton (N): the unit of measurement for force
- normal reaction force: a force that acts when two objects are in contact with one another to prevent one object passing through the other
- scalar: a quantity with size only
- upthrust: the upwards force on a body when it displaces fluid
- vector: a quantity with size and direction
- weight: the force of gravity acting on a body (measured in newtons (N))
- weight = mass × gravitational field strength or W = mg
Lesson 4Resultant Forces→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 20–22
📚 Specification Points
- 1.11 describe the effects of forces between bodies such as changes in speed, shape and direction
- 1.15 calculate the resultant force of forces that act along a line
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define and calculate resultant forces
- describe the effects of forces on objects.
🔑 Key Words
- resultant force: the single force that has the same effect as the combination of all the forces acting on an object
Lesson 67Resultant Forces and Acceleration→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 28–31 and 35–37
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and second (s)
- 1.17 know and use the relationship between unbalanced force, mass and acceleration: force = mass x acceleration; F=m×a
- 1.21 describe the forces acting on falling objects (and explain why falling objects reach terminal velocity)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall and use the relationship: resultant force = mass × acceleration
- explain why falling objects reach terminal velocity.
🔑 Key Words
- resultant force: the single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting on an object combined
- acceleration: the rate of change of velocity
- Newton's second law: force = mass × acceleration (F = ma)
- terminal velocity: the constant speed reached when the driving force equals the resistive forces
Lesson 68Newton's Third Law→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 46–47
📚 Specification Points
- 1.29P demonstrate an understanding of Newton’s third law Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know the features of a balanced pair of forces acting on an object
- identify Newton’s third law pairs of forces.
🔑 Key Words
- Newton's third law: for every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force
- action-reaction pair: two forces that are equal in size, opposite in direction, and act on different objects
- normal contact force: the force exerted perpendicular to a surface when two objects are in contact
Lesson 5Stretching Materials 1→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 23–25
Lab Book: Pages 10–13
📚 Specification Points
- 1.22 practical: investigate how extension varies with applied force for helical springs, metal wires and rubber bands
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the relationship between the force applied to a material and its extension.
🔑 Key Words
- dependent variable: the variable that changes because of the change to the independent variable
- elastic deformation: the spring will regain its original shape when the force is removed
- extension: current length − original length
- independent variable: the variable you manipulate/change during an experiment
- parallax error: type of error that occurs when the eye is at an angle to the measurement
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should take care not to drop the masses.
- • Students should wear shoes with closed toes and heels to protect their feet in case they drop the masses.
- • Before students start, remind them: You must always wear your eye protection if your spring is loaded .
- • Ask students to carry out the practical following the method on p. 10 of the Lab Book . Students should work in pairs, or groups of three.
- • It is advisable to fix the base of the clamp stand to the bench with a G-clamp, so it doesn't topple over.
- • Students should then answer Q2–4 on pp. 11–12 of the Lab Book . For Q4 , they will use their results to plot a graph . Lab Book answers
Lesson 6Stretching Materials 2→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 23–25 and 27
📚 Specification Points
- 1.22 practical: investigate how extension varies with applied force for helical springs, metal wires and rubber bands
- 1.23 know that the initial linear region of a force–extension graph is associated with Hooke's law
- 1.24 describe elastic behaviour as the ability of a material to recover its original shape after the forces causing deformation have been removed
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify and describe elastic and inelastic behaviour of materials
- link the linear region of a force–extension graph to Hooke’s law.
🔑 Key Words
- deformation: a change in the length/dimensions of a body
- elastic limit: the point beyond which a material will not return to its original shape
- elastic material: one that returns to its original size when the force stretching it is removed
- Hooke’s law: states that the extension is directly proportional to the applied force
- limit of proportionality: the point up to which extension is proportional to the applied force
- plastic material: one that does not return to its original size when the force stretching it is removed
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ensure that students wear eye protection in case the metal wire or spring snap, to protect their eyes. Instruct students to avoid applying large forces to the materials provided.
Lesson 7Centre of Gravity→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 51–53
📚 Specification Points
- 1.31P know that the weight of a body acts through its centre of gravity Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the centre of gravity as the point through which the weight of the body is considered to act
- describe a method to find a body’s centre of gravity.
🔑 Key Words
- centre of gravity: the centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the weight of the body is considered to act
- centre of mass: the average position of the mass of all the mass of a body
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The stand should be clamped to the bench using a G-clamp so it doesn’t topple over.
- • Students should place a piece of foam below the hanger so that, if the string breaks, the hanger won’t hit the floor or their feet.
Lesson 8Basic Moments→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 48–54
📚 Specification Points
- 1.30P know and use the relationship between the moment of a force and its perpendicular distance from the pivot: moment = force × perpendicular distance from pivot Phys only
- 1.32P use the principle of moments for a simple system of parallel forces acting in one plane Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define and use the moment of a force
- explain common applications of moments.
🔑 Key Words
- moment of a force: the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the pivot
- M (Nm) = F (N) × d (m)
Lesson 9Balancing Moments→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 48–54
📚 Specification Points
- 1.30P know and use the relationship between the moment of a force and its perpendicular distance from the pivot: moment = force × perpendicular distance from pivot Phys only
- 1.32P use the principle of moments for a simple system of parallel forces acting in one plane Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- apply the principle of moments.
🔑 Key Words
- principle of moments: if an object is in equilibrium, then the sum of the clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same pivot
Lesson 73Advanced Moments→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 48–51 and 53
📚 Specification Points
- 1.32P use the principle of moments for a simple system of parallel forces acting in one plane Phys only
- 1.33P understand how the upward forces on a light beam, supported at its ends, vary with the position of a heavy object placed on the beam Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and apply the principle of moments
- understand how the normal contact force on a light beam, supported at its ends, varies with the position of a heavy object placed on the beam.
🔑 Key Words
- moment: the turning effect of a force, calculated as force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
- principle of moments: when an object is in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise moments
- pivot: the fixed point about which a lever turns
- equilibrium: the state when all forces and moments are balanced
Lesson 64Velocity–Time Graphs→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 9–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2) and second (s)
- 1.6 know and use the relationship between acceleration, change in velocity and time taken: acceleration=(change in velocity)/(time taken) a=((v-u))/t
- 1.7 plot and explain velocity–time graphs
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use velocity–time graphs to analyse the motion of an object
- use the relationship: acceleration = change in velocity time taken .
🔑 Key Words
- velocity: the speed of an object in a particular direction, measured in m/s
- acceleration: the rate of change of velocity, a = v − u t
- velocity–time graph: a graph used to show the change in velocity of an object over a period of time
Lesson 65Calculations Using Velocity–Time Graphs→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 9–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2) and second (s)
- 1.8 determine acceleration from the gradient of a velocity–time graph
- 1.9 determine the distance travelled from the area between a velocity–time graph and the time axis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- determine acceleration from the gradient of a velocity–time graph
- calculate distance travelled from the area under a velocity–time graph
- interpret velocity–time graphs for objects with changing velocity
🔑 Key Words
- velocity–time graph: a graph used to show the change in velocity of an object over a period of time
- acceleration: the rate of change of velocity, a = v − u t
Lesson 69The Suvat Equations→Year 10 · Term 1
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Textbook: Pages 14–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.6 know and use the relationship between acceleration, change in velocity and time taken: acceleration=(change in velocity)/(time taken) a=((v-u))/t
- 1.10 use the relationship between final speed, initial speed, acceleration and distance moved: (final speed)2 = (initial speed)2 + (2 x acceleration x distance moved) v2=u2+(2×a×s)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the relationship \({(\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2={(\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2+(2\times\mathrm{acceleration}\times\mathrm{distance}\;\mathrm{moved})\) 2 \(=\) (initial speed)2 \(+\) (2 \(\times\) acceleration \(\times\) distance moved) -->
- use the relationship \(\mathrm {acceleration}=\frac{\mathrm{change}\;\mathrm{in}\;\mathrm{velocity}}{\text{time taken}}\) or \(\mathrm{acceleration}=\frac{\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm{velocity}-\;\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm{velocity}}{\text{time taken}}\)
🔑 Key Words
- acceleration = change   in   velocity time   taken
- acceleration  = final   velocity - initial   velocity time   taken \(a=\frac{v-u}t\)
- \({(\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2={(\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2+(2\times\mathrm{acceleration}\times\mathrm{distance}\;\mathrm{moved})\) 2 \(=\) (initial speed)2 \(+\) (2 \(\times\) acceleration \(\times\) distance moved) --> \(v^2=u^2+\left(2\times a\times s\right)\)
Lesson 70On the Road→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 32–33
📚 Specification Points
- 1.19 know that the stopping distance of a vehicle is made up of the sum of the thinking distance and the braking distance
- 1.20 describe the factors affecting vehicle stopping distance, including speed, mass, road condition and reaction time
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that the stopping distance of a vehicle is made up of the sum of the thinking distance and the braking distance
- describe the factors affecting vehicle stopping distance, including speed, mass, road condition and reaction time.
🔑 Key Words
- braking distance: the distance travelled by the car while the brakes are applied
- reaction time: the time taken for a driver to react to a hazard
- thinking distance: the distance travelled by the car while the driver reacts to a hazard
- stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for the practical.
Lesson 71Momentum→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 40–44
📚 Specification Points
- 1.2P use the following units: newton metre (Nm), kilogram metre/second (kg m/s) Phys only
- 1.25P know and use the relationship momentum=mass×velocity (p=m×v) Phys only
- 1.27P use the principle of conservation of momentum to calculate the mass, velocity or momentum of objects Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship momentum = mass × velocity (p = mv)
- use the principle of conservation of momentum to calculate the mass, velocity or momentum of objects.
🔑 Key Words
- constant/conserved: remains the same, does not change
- momentum = mass × velocity (p = mv)
- principle of conservation of momentum: the total momentum before a collision or explosion is equal to the total momentum after the collision, provided there is no friction or other external forces acting
Lesson 72Roads and Sports Safety→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 41–42 and 45
📚 Specification Points
- 1.26P use the idea of momentum to explain safety features Phys only
- 1.28P use the relationship between force, change in momentum and time taken: force = change in momentum/time taken Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the relationship force =  change in momentum time taken
- use the idea of momentum to explain safety features in car safety
- use the idea of momentum to explain safety features in sports and playgrounds.
🔑 Key Words
- momentum: the product of an object's mass and velocity (p = mv)
- crumple zone: a part of a vehicle designed to deform in a collision, increasing the time of impact and reducing force
- impulse: the change in momentum, equal to force × time
Lesson 10Energy Stores and Pathways→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 132–135 and 137
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following unit: joule (J)
- 4.2 describe energy transfers involving energy stores: • Energy stores: chemical, kinetic, gravitational, elastic, thermal, magnetic, electrostatic, nuclear • Energy transfers: mechanically, electrically, by heating, by radiation (light and sound)
- 4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and give examples of the eight energy stores
- know and give examples of the four energy pathways
- describe energy transfers in everyday situations in terms of stores and pathways.
🔑 Key Words
- energy: a property of a system used to describe and calculate changes – measured in joules, J
- energy pathway: a process, such as a force moving an object, which transfers energy between different stores
- energy store: an object, or system of objects, in which energy is stored – there are eight different ways in which energy is stored
- energy transfer: a description of the changes in energy stores and the pathways that cause those changes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Stand clear of swinging objects. Ensure masses are securely attached.
Lesson 90Kinetic Energy→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 153–155
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), joule (J), metre (m), metre/second (m/s) metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N), second (s) and watt (W)
- 4.14 know and use the relationship: KE = ½ × m × v2
- 4.15 understand how conservation of energy produces a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy and work
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship: kinetic energy = 1 2 × mass × speed2
- understand how conservation of energy produces a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy and work.
🔑 Key Words
- kinetic energy: the energy an object has due to its motion
- gravitational potential energy: the energy an object has due to its height above the ground
- conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred between stores
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Stand clear of swinging objects. Ensure masses are securely attached.
Lesson 89Work and Energy Transfer→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 150–153
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11 know and use the relationship between work done, force and distance moved in the direction of the force: work done = force × distance moved, W=F×d
- 4.12 know that work done is equal to energy transferred
- 4.13 know and use the relationship between gravitational potential energy, mass, gravitational field strength, and height: gravitational potential energy = mass x gravitational field strength x height, GPE=m×g×h
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship: work done = force × distance moved
- know that work done is equal to energy transferred
- know and use the relationship:gravitational potential energy (GPE) = mass × gravitational field strength × height.
🔑 Key Words
- gravitational potential energy = mass × gravitational field strength × height (\(GPE = m\;×\;g\;×\;h\))
- weight = mass × gravitational field strength (\(W = m\;×\;g\))
- work done: the work done by a force is the energy transferred by that force
- work done = force × distance moved (\(W = F\;×\;d\))
Lesson 91Power→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 155–156 and 63–65
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11 know and use the relationship between work done, force and distance moved in the direction of the force: work done = force × distance moved, W=F×d
- 4.14 know and use the relationship: KE = ½ × m × v2
- 4.16 describe power as the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of doing work
- 4.17 use the relationship between power, work done (energy transferred) and time taken: power = work done/time taken
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe power as the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of doing work and use the relationship: \(\text{power = }\frac{\text{work done}}{\text{time taken}}\)
- combine a range of equations involving power and work done to answer questions.
🔑 Key Words
- power: the rate of doing work or transferring energy
- power \({ = }\frac{\text{work done}}{\text{time taken}}\) \({(P = }\frac{{W}}{{t}})\)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- hazard and pushes the brakes, which produce a frictional
Lesson 11Conservation of Energy and Efficiency→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 135–137
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following unit: joule (J)
- 4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy
- 4.4 know and use the relationship between efficiency, useful energy output and total energy input: efficiency=(useful energy output)/(total energy input)×100%
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and apply the principle of conservation of energy
- explain and calculate efficiency in energy transfers.
🔑 Key Words
- closed system: where there are no outside influences, no external forces or external heating effects
- efficiency equation:
- principle of conservation of energy: the principle of conservation of energy states that energy is not created or destroyed in any process
- useful energy: the energy which is transferred to stores we want
- wasted energy: the energy which is transferred to stores we do not want
Lesson 12Sankey Diagrams and Energy Transfers→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 136–138
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following unit: joule (J)
- 4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy
- 4.4 know and use the relationship between efficiency, useful energy output and total energy input: efficiency=(useful energy output)/(total energy input)×100%
- 4.5 describe a variety of everyday and scientific devices and situations, explaining transfer the input energy in terms of the above relationship, including their representation by Sankey diagrams
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the useful energy output and wasted energy in everyday situations
- use Sankey diagrams
- draw Sankey diagrams.
🔑 Key Words
- Sankey diagram: a diagram which shows the flow of energy in an energy transfer.
Lesson 85Conduction→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 139–140
Lab Book: Pages 30–31
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction, convection and radiation
- 4.9 practical: investigate thermal energy transfer by conduction, convection and radiation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction
- explain why metals are better thermal conductors than non-metals
- describe simple demonstrations of different rates of thermal conduction in metals and non-metals.
🔑 Key Words
- conduction: the main process of thermal energy transfer in solids
- thermal conductor: a material which easily transfers thermal energy by conduction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care with sharp drawing pins.
Lesson 86Convection Currents→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 140–144
Lab Book: Pages 32–33
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction, convection and radiation
- 4.7 explain the role of convection in everyday phenomena
- 4.9 practical: investigate thermal energy transfer by conduction, convection and radiation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the process of convection
- explain the role of convection in everyday phenomena.
🔑 Key Words
- convection: a process which causes thermal energy to be transferred in fluids
- convection current: the movement of material in a fluid due to density changes
- fluid: a liquid or gas
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • The hot water may cause burns. make sure you stand up for the investigation.
- • Potassium manganate(VII) crystals can cause severe irritation or burns on the skin. Never handle the crystals directly – always use tweezers.
Lesson 87Radiation→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 142–143
Lab Book: Pages 34–36
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction, convection and radiation
- 4.8 explain how emission and absorption of radiation are related to surface and temperature
- 4.9 practical: investigate thermal energy transfer by conduction, convection and radiation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by radiation
- explain how the rates of emission and absorption of radiation by different materials are used to design everyday objects.
🔑 Key Words
- absorbing: taking in radiation, which has the effect of increasing temperature
- emitting: giving out radiation, which has the effect of decreasing temperature
- radiation: electromagnetic waves which transfer energy (as opposed to nuclear radiation emitted from atoms)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot water.
Lesson 88Reducing Unwanted Energy Transfers→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 145–147
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction, convection and radiation
- 4.7 explain the role of convection in everyday phenomena
- 4.10 explain ways of reducing unwanted energy transfer, such as insulation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- give examples of situations in which there are unwanted energy transfers
- explain how unwanted energy transfers can be reduced, such as by using insulation.
🔑 Key Words
- aerodynamic: designed to reduce air resistance
- conduction: the main process of thermal energy transfer in solids
- convection: a process which causes thermal energy to be transferred in fluids
- insulator: a material that greatly reduces the transfer of thermal energy to the surroundings
- lubricant: a substance like oil or grease which is used to allow moving parts to move smoothly
- radiation: electromagnetic waves which transfer energy (as opposed to nuclear radiation emitted from atoms)
Lesson 110Energy Resources 1→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 158–161 and 165–166
📚 Specification Points
- 4.18P describe the energy transfers involved in generating electricity using: • fossil fuels • nuclear power Phys only
- 4.19P describe the advantages and disadvantages of methods of large-scale electricity production from various renewable and non-renewable resources Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the energy transfers involved in generating electricity using nuclear fuels and fossil fuels
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of large-scale electricity production from nuclear fuels and fossil fuels
- explain and use the terms reliable, renewable and non-renewable.
🔑 Key Words
- climate change: a change in global climate due to changes in the atmosphere
- fossil fuels: fossil remains which are carbon based and can be burnt to generate electricity
- non-renewable: an energy resource which will be used up and cannot be replaced after use
- nuclear power: a process of generating electricity from nuclear fuels
- renewable: an energy resource which will not run out
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- produces nuclear waste which is extremely dangerous and needs to be disposed of
Lesson 111Energy Resources 2→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 161–165
📚 Specification Points
- 4.18P describe the energy transfers involved in generating electricity using: • geothermal resources • solar heating systems • solar cells Phys only
- 4.19P describe the advantages and disadvantages of methods of large-scale electricity production from various renewable and non-renewable resources Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the energy transfers involved in generating electricity using geothermal, solar heating systems, and solar cells
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of large-scale electricity production from geothermal, solar heating systems, and solar cells.
🔑 Key Words
- geothermal energy: energy produced using the heat from the ground
- solar cells (photovoltaic cells): a solid-state device which produces useful voltage by absorbing light
- solar heating: warming houses using light and other radiation from the Sun
Lesson 112Energy Resources 3→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 163–166
📚 Specification Points
- 4.18P describe the energy transfers involved in generating electricity using: • wind • water Phys only
- 4.19P describe the advantages and disadvantages of methods of large-scale electricity production from various renewable and non-renewable resources Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the energy transfers involved in generating electricity using wind and water
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of large-scale electricity production from wind and water.
🔑 Key Words
- hydroelectricity: generating electricity using water trapped behind a dam
- tidal power: generating electricity from the tidal flow of water
- wind turbine: a device which generates electricity from air currents
Lesson 21Static Charges→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 84–88
Lab Book: Pages 14–16
📚 Specification Points
- 2.22P identify common materials which are electrical conductors or insulators, including metals and plastics Phys only
- 2.23P practical: investigate how insulating materials can be charged by friction Phys only
- 2.25P know that there are forces of attraction between unlike charges and forces of repulsion between like charges Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify common electrical conductors and insulators
- investigate how insulating materials can be charged by friction
- explain how the forces of repulsion and attraction arise from charged objects.
🔑 Key Words
- conductor: a material which can carry an electric current
- coulomb (C): the unit of electric charge
- electric charge (Q): a property some particles or objects have; charge can be either positive or negative
- electric current (I): the rate of flow of electric charge
- electron: the negatively charged particle responsible for electric currents in metals
- insulator: a material which cannot carry an electric current
- semiconductors: materials which conduct slightly and are used in a wide range of electronics
- static electricity: the build-up of non-moving charges in objects
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Use this simple demonstration to remind students about conductors and insulators. Sample materials are placed in a circuit containing a lamp; the lamp will light up if the material is a good conductor.
- • By the end of the demonstration the students should understand that metals are good conductors, and that graphite is also a good conductor. They should know that most non-metals are insulators.
- • Be careful with the glass rod if one is used. It must be rubbed gently to avoid it breaking.
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for the practical.
Lesson 22Explaining Electrostatic Effects→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 84–88
📚 Specification Points
- 2.24P Explain how positive and negative electrostatic charges are produced on materials by the loss and gain of electrons Phys only
- 2.25P know that there are forces of attraction between unlike charges and forces of repulsion between like charges Phys only
- 2.26P explain electrostatic phenomena in terms of the movement of electrons Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the interactions between charged objects
- describe how objects become charged in terms of transfer of electrons
- explain how the forces of repulsion and attraction arise from charged objects.
🔑 Key Words
- charging by induction: when parts of an object become electrically charged because another charged object is brought near
- conductor: a material that can carry an electric current
- electric charge (Q): a property some particles or objects have; charge can be either positive or negative
- electron: the negatively charged particle responsible for electric currents in metals
- electrostatic forces: non-contact forces that exist between electrically charged particles or objects at rest
- insulator: a material that cannot carry an electric current
- static electricity: the build-up of non-moving charges in objects
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Be careful not to break any of the rods or burst the balloons.
Lesson 23The Dangers of Static Electricity→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 91–92
📚 Specification Points
- 2.27P explain the potential dangers of electrostatic charges, e.g. when fuelling aircraft and tankers Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe some of the dangers associated with static electricity.
🔑 Key Words
- hazard: an object or action that could pose a danger
- risk: the likelihood of something dangerous happening
- Van de Graaff generator: a device used to generate static electricity
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • See local guidance for use of a VDG generator – especially note about medical conditions (e.g. do not use near pacemakers.)
- • The VDG generator can damage sensitive electronic devices – do not use near mobile phones.
- • DO NOT charge up more than one person at a time.
- • In this activity you will demonstrate some electrostatic effects and show that a build-up of charge can produce potentially dangerous sparks. If a demonstration is not possible, use a video.
Lesson 24The Uses of Static Electricity→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 89–92
📚 Specification Points
- 2.28P explain some uses of electrostatic charges, e.g. in photocopiers and inkjet printers Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe some of the uses of static electricity.
🔑 Key Words
- electrostatic painting: using electrostatics to assist with producing a smooth paint covering of objects
- electrostatic smoke precipitator: a system used to remove dust and smoke from power station waste gases
Lesson 13Electrical Charge and Current→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 67–69 and 73–74
📚 Specification Points
- 2.12 know that lamps and LEDs can be used to indicate the presence of a current in a circuit
- 2.14 know that current is the rate of flow of charge
- 2.15 know and use the relationship between charge, current and time: charge = current × time Q = I × t
- 2.16 know that electric current in solid metallic conductors is a flow of negatively charged electrons
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the difference between charge and current
- describe current as a flow of charge
- know and use the relationship: charge = current × time.
🔑 Key Words
- ammeter: an instrument to measure electric current
- ampere (A): the unit of electric current
- conductor: a material that can carry an electric current
- coulomb (C): the unit of electric charge
- electric charge (Q): a property some particles or objects have; charge can be either positive or negative charge = current × time (Q = I × t )
- electric current (I): the rate of flow of electric charge
- electrons: the negatively charged particles responsible for electric currents in metals
- insulator: a material that cannot carry an electric current
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with electrical equipment. Do not connect circuits to mains. Switch off power before changing connections.
Lesson 15Current and Voltage→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 69–74
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C), joule (J), ohm (Ω), second (s) and volt (V)
- 2.8 understand how the current in a series circuit depends on the applied voltage and the number and nature of other components
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand current in simple series circuits
- understand qualitatively the effect on current of changing the applied voltage
- understand that when more resistors are added to a series circuit the current decreases.
🔑 Key Words
- ammeter: an instrument used to measure electric current
- ampere (A): the unit of electric current
- electric current (I ): the rate of flow of electric charge
- ohm (Ω): the unit of electrical resistance
- resistance: the difficulty current experiences in a circuit
- resistor: a component designed to reduce the current in a circuit
- voltage (V ): the amount of energy carried by each unit of charge from a cell/battery or power supply to the circuit components
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with electrical equipment. Do not connect circuits to mains. Switch off power before changing connections.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 80–83
📚 Specification Points
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
- 2.11 describe the qualitative variation of resistance of light-dependent resistors (LDRs) with illumination and thermistors with temperature
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate how the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature
- investigate how the resistance of a light-dependent resistor (LDR) varies with light intensity (brightness)
- plot graphs showing how resistance varies with an external factor.
🔑 Key Words
- light-dependent resistor (LDR): a circuit component that changes resistance depending on the brightness of the light falling on it
- ohm (Ω): the unit of electrical resistance
- resistance: the difficulty current experiences in a circuit
- resistor: a component designed to reduce the current in a circuit
- semiconductor: a material that has high electrical resistance in some conditions but will conduct electricity in others
- thermistor: a circuit component that changes resistance depending on its temperature
Lesson 17Changing Resistance and Alternating Current→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 65 and 80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.6 know the difference between mains electricity being alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.) being supplied by a cell or battery
- 2.11 describe the qualitative variation of resistance of light-dependent resistors (LDRs) with illumination and thermistors with temperature
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- analyse graphs of resistance for thermistors and light-dependent resistors
- describe the difference between alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.)
- compare oscilloscope traces for a.c. and d.c.
🔑 Key Words
- alternating current (a.c.): a current that reverses direction periodically – many times a second
- direct current (d.c.): a current that only travels in one direction
- light-dependent resistor (LDR): a circuit component that changes resistance depending on the brightness of the light falling on it
- thermistor: a circuit component that changes resistance depending on its temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not attempt to show mains voltages. While many oscilloscopes can handle these, they pose an unnecessary risk of electrocution in this demonstration.
- • Students do not need to be able to operate the oscilloscope or understand the details of its controls. However, they should be able to look at the screen and decide if a signal is a.c. or d.c.
Lesson 18Current, Voltage and Resistance→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–76 and 83
📚 Specification Points
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current × resistance V = I × R
🎯 Learning Objectives
- form the equation which relates current, voltage and resistance
- use the relationship voltage = current × resistance in a variety of contexts
- measure resistance in practical circuits using an ammeter and a voltmeter.
🔑 Key Words
- ampere (A): the unit of electric current
- electric current (I): the rate of flow of electric charge
- ohm (Ω): the unit of electrical resistance
- resistance (R): the difficulty current experiences in a circuit
- volt (V): the unit for voltage
- voltage (V): the amount of energy carried by each unit of charge from a cell/battery or power supply to the circuit components
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ensure that you use low voltages to keep any currents below 1 A.
Lesson 19Current–Voltage Characteristics→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 77–78
📚 Specification Points
- 2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to investigate this experimentally
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current × resistance V = I × R
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the resistance of components using the relationship voltage = current × resistance
- plan an investigation of how current varies with applied voltage for a wire and a resistor
- plot current–voltage graphs for a wire and a resistor
- describe the relationship between current and voltage for a wire and resistor.
🔑 Key Words
- ammeter: a device used to measure current in a circuit
- current–voltage characteristics graph: a graph showing the relationship between the current and voltage for a component
- ohmic conductor: a device where the resistance does not change with the current (as long as external conditions do not change)
- variable resistor: a resistor with changeable resistance which can be used to change the resistance in a circuit
- voltmeter: a device used for measuring voltages in a circuit
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Use low voltages to keep any currents below 1 A.
- • Do not touch the wire until it has cooled down.
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a table for analysis. Display the table template in the Slideshow: Results table . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books.
Lesson 20Investigating Filament Lamps and Diodes→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 77–78
📚 Specification Points
- 2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to investigate this experimentally
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current × resistance V = I × R
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the resistance of components using the relationship voltage = current × resistance
- plan an investigation of how current varies with applied voltage for a filament lamp and a diode
- plot current–voltage graphs for a filament lamp and a diode
- describe the relationship between current and voltage for a filament lamp and a diode.
🔑 Key Words
- conventional current: charge flow in a circuit from positive terminal to negative terminal
- diode: an electrical component that allows the flow of current in only one direction
- filament lamp: a lamp in which the light source is a fine electrical conductor heated by the passage of current
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The lamp will become hot, so do not touch it until it has time to cool down.
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a table for analysis. Display the table template on the slideshow. Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Note that their results table will need additional rows depending on the number of measurements made. Slideshow: Results table 1
- • Remind students that Ohm’s law states: The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it as long as the physical conditions (e.g. temperature) remain the same.
Lesson 74Series Circuits→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 72–73
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 explain why a series or parallel circuit is more appropriate for particular applications, including domestic lighting
- 2.8 understand how the current in a series circuit depends on the applied voltage and the number and nature of other components
- 2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to investigate this experimentally
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current x resistance (V = I x R)
- 2.19 calculate the currents, voltages and resistances of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the currents of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
- calculate the voltages of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
- calculate the resistances of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
- explain why a series circuit is more appropriate for some applications.
🔑 Key Words
- resistance equation: resistance = voltage current R = V I
- series circuit: a series of components ‘one after the other’ where there is only one current path
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Currents should always be kept below 0.5 A so that the resistors do not overheat.
- • Students should work in pairs or small groups of three for this practical task.
- • Students do not necessarily need to plot the graph for the experiment before reaching the conclusion as the relationship should be obvious.
Lesson 75Parallel Circuits and Energy Transfer→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 69–74
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C), joule (J), second (s) and volt (V)
- 2.7 explain why a series or parallel circuit is more appropriate for particular applications, including domestic lighting
- 2.17 understand why current is conserved at a junction in a circuit
- 2.18 know that the voltage across two components connected in parallel is the same
- 2.20 know that: • voltage is the energy transferred per unit charge passed • the volt is a joule per coulomb
- 2.21 know and use the relationship between energy transferred, charge and voltage: energy transferred = charge × voltage E = Q × V
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why a parallel circuit is more appropriate for some applications
- describe why current is conserved at a junction in a circuit
- state that the voltage across two components connected in parallel is the same
- define voltage as the energy transferred per unit charge passed and the volt as being a joule per coulomb
- recall and use the relationship energy transferred = charge × voltage.
🔑 Key Words
- energy transferred = charge × voltage, E = Q × V
- parallel circuit: an electric circuit that has more than one path that the current can follow
- voltage (V): the amount of energy carried by each unit of charge from a cell/battery or power supply to the circuit components
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Low voltage power supplies should be used to limit currents.
Lesson 76Mains Electrical Safety→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 59–63
📚 Specification Points
- 2.2 understand how the use of insulation, double insulation, earthing, fuses and circuit breakers protects the device or user in a range of domestic appliances
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how the use of insulation protects the user in a range of domestic appliances
- describe how the use of fuses protects the device in a range of domestic appliances
- describe how the use of fuses, earthing and double insulation protects the user in a range of domestic appliances
- describe how the use of circuit breakers protects the device and user in a range of domestic appliances.
🔑 Key Words
- circuit breaker: an automatic switch which cuts off a circuit if the current is too high
- double-insulated: when a device is constructed from plastic to help prevent electrocution
- earthing: connecting a circuit to an earth wire to give an easy path for current
- fuse: a thin piece of wire designed to melt when currents are too high and cut off a circuit
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not use naked fuse wire as this can become hot enough to cause burns.
Lesson 77Mains Electricity Calculations→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 63–65
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C), joule (J), ohm (Ω), second (s), volt (V) and watt (W)
- 2.3 understand why a current in a resistor results in the electrical transfer of energy and an increase in temperature, and how this can be used in a variety of domestic contexts
- 2.4 know and use the relationship between power, current and voltage: power = current × voltage P = I × V and apply the relationship to the selection of appropriate fuses
- 2.5 use the relationship between energy transferred, current, voltage and time: energy transferred = current × voltage × time E = I × V × t
- 6.1 use the following units: ampere (A), volt (V) and watt (W)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why a current in a resistor results in the electrical transfer of energy and an increase in temperature, and how this can be used in a variety of domestic contexts
- recall and use the relationship: power = current × voltage
- use the relationship: energy transferred = current × voltage × time.
🔑 Key Words
- electrical energy equation: energy transferred by an electric current = current × voltage × time (E = I × V × t)
- electrical power equation: power = current × voltage (P = I × V)
- power equation: energy transferred = power × time (E = P × t)
Lesson 27Properties of Waves→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 97–99
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 explain the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves
- 3.3 know the definitions of amplitude, wavefront, frequency, wavelength and period of a wave
- 3.4 know that waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter
- 3.1 use the following units: hertz (Hz) and metre (m)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the difference between longitudinal, transverse, mechanical and electromagnetic waves and give examples of each
- define amplitude and period of a wave
- define wavefront and wavelength of a wave
- know that waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter.
🔑 Key Words
- amplitude: maximum displacement or half the full height of a wave
- direction of propagation: the direction in which a wave carries energy
- electromagnetic wave: formed by oscillating electric and magnetic fields
- longitudinal wave: oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer
- mechanical wave: formed by oscillating particles
- oscillations/oscillating: periodic motion that repeats itself in a regular cycle
- period: time taken for one oscillation
- transverse wave: oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer
- wavefront: a line where all the oscillations are in phase and the same distance from the source
- wavelength: distance between adjacent points with identical displacements
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Clean up any water spills immediately.
- • Students should observe the motion of the wave crests.
Lesson 28Wave Speeds→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 99–101
📚 Specification Points
- 3.1 use the following units: hertz (Hz) and metre (m)
- 3.3 know the definitions of amplitude, wavefront, frequency, wavelength and period of a wave
- 3.5 know and use the relationship between the speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave: wave speed = frequency × wavelength v = f × λ
- 3.6 use the relationship between frequency and time period: frequency = 1/(time period) f = 1/T
- 3.7 use the above relationships in different contexts, including sound waves and electromagnetic waves
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define frequency of a wave
- use the equation: wave speed = frequency × wavelength.
🔑 Key Words
- frequency: the number of waves per second
- wave speed: distance travelled by a wave per unit time
- wave speed equation: wave speed = frequency × wavelength
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Mop up any spilled water straight away
Lesson 29Investigating Reflection→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 102–103
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 explain that all waves can be reflected and refracted
- 3.14 know that light waves are transverse waves and that they can be reflected and refracted
- 3.15 use the law of reflection (the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the reflection of waves and give examples of reflection of longitudinal sound waves and transverse light waves
- plan an investigation into the law of reflection using a ray box and a mirror
- state the law of reflection.
🔑 Key Words
- angle of incidence: the angle between the normal and the incident ray
- angle of reflection: the angle between the normal and the reflected ray
- the law of reflection: the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
- the normal: a line drawn perpendicular (at a 90° angle) to the reflecting surface at the point the ray meets the reflecting surface
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The ray box can get hot, so students should take care when handling it not to burn their fingers.
- • The light bulb is likely to be fragile so easily broken, and broken glass is a hazard.
- • Glass mirrors can have sharp edges, especially when chipped.
- • It is important that students attempt to collect accurate data for the experiment: they need to take great care with the protractor and try to measure to the nearest degree. This can be quite challenging (see Support ).
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a simple table for analysis. Display the Slideshow: Results table . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Slideshow: Results table
- • Students may point out that the angles do not exactly match. Ask: Why do you think there is some variation? (Possible answers: small errors in reading angles, inaccurate positioning of the protractor, or placing the mirror exactly on the paper between readings.)
Lesson 30Images in Mirrors→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 102–103
📚 Specification Points
- 3.15 use the law of reflection (the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection)
- 3.16 draw ray diagrams to illustrate reflection and refraction
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state and apply the law of reflection to draw ray diagrams for simple reflections
- locate and then describe the properties of the image formed in a plane mirror.
🔑 Key Words
- laterally inverted: when the left and right sides are reversed
- virtual image: an image formed where imaginary rays appear to come from
- real image: an image formed by real rays passing through a point
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Any water spills should be cleaned up immediately.
- • Keep electrical equipment away from water.
- • You should remind students of the relationship between wavefronts and the direction of travel: Ask: Which way are the wavefronts moving? (Answer: In the direction of propagation.)
- • Place the flat barrier into the tank so that it makes an angle of approximately 45° with the wavefronts. Describe what happens to the wavefronts when they reach the barrier. The students should see that the wavefronts are reflected from the flat barrier at the same angle that they hit the barrier at. Ask students: Are the waves following the law of reflection? Briefly share students’ thoughts then move to the next step.
- • Be careful if a glass pane is used, they are fragile and can be sharp.
- • Make sure that you do not put your finger in the flame of the lit tealight.
Lesson 78Introducing Refraction→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 115–116
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 explain that all waves can be reflected and refracted
- 3.14 know that light waves are transverse waves and that they can be reflected and refracted
- 3.16 draw ray diagrams to illustrate reflection and refraction
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the refraction of waves as they move from one medium to another
- draw ray diagrams that show the ray paths for the refraction of light.
🔑 Key Words
- dispersion: the splitting of white light into the colours of the visible spectrum
- medium (plural: media): the ‘material’ through which a wave travels
- normal (the): a line perpendicular (at right angles to) to a point on a surface or boundary. Used in the construction of ray diagrams.
- reflection: when a wave reaches a boundary and changes direction instead of entering a new medium
- refraction: change in speed, direction or wavelength of a wave when it crosses the boundary between two different media
Lesson 81Refraction of Light→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 115–117
Lab Book: Pages 17–20
📚 Specification Points
- 3.17 practical: investigate the refraction of light, using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and triangular prisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the behaviour of light at boundaries in a semi-circular glass block
- describe the total internal reflection of light at a glass–air boundary
- describe the dispersion of light in a glass prism.
🔑 Key Words
- critical angle (c): the angle of incidence which causes the angle of refraction to be 90 degrees
- dispersion: the splitting of white light into the colours of the visible spectrum
- refraction: change in speed, direction or wavelength of a wave when it crosses the boundary between two different media
- total internal reflection (TIR): when a light wave is reflected at the boundary between two different media; the reflection occurs when light is moving from a material which has a higher refractive index to one which has a lower refractive index
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ray boxes might get hot. Take care when touching the ray box. Switch the light source off between making measurements.
Lesson 82Refractive Index→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 115–116
📚 Specification Points
- 3.18 know and use the relationship between refractive index, angle of incidence and angle of refraction: n = sin i/sin r
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the refractive index, n, of a glass block
- know and use the relationship between refractive index, angle of incidence and angle of refraction: n = sin i sin r · -->
🔑 Key Words
- refractive index: a measure of how much a material slows down light, calculated as n = sin i / sin r
- angle of incidence: the angle between the incoming ray and the normal
- angle of refraction: the angle between the refracted ray and the normal
- refraction: the change in direction of a wave as it passes from one medium to another
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a simple table for analysis. Display Slide 1 of the slideshow. Students should copy and complete the results table in their exercise books. Slideshow: Results and calculations
Lesson 83Investigating Refractive Index→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 116
Lab Book: Pages 21–24
📚 Specification Points
- 3.18 know and use the relationship between refractive index, angle of incidence and angle of refraction: n=sin i/sin r
- 3.19 practical: investigate the refractive index of glass, using a glass block
🎯 Learning Objectives
- measure the refractive index of glass experimentally
- apply the relationship \({n=}\frac{\sin i}{\sin r}\) to find refractive index.
🔑 Key Words
- refractive index: a measure of how much light is bent when passing through a material
- glass block: a rectangular piece of glass used to investigate refraction
- normal: an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to a surface at the point where a ray hits it
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ray boxes may get hot. Take care when touching the ray box. Switch the light source off between making measurements.
- • The practical task needs to be carried out with great care in order to measure the angles of incidence and refraction accurately. Although the angle at which the ray leaves the glass should be identical to the angle of the original incident ray, there will typically be a slight difference when measured.
Lesson 84Total Internal Reflection→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 117–121
📚 Specification Points
- 3.20 describe the role of total internal reflection in transmitting information along optical fibres and in prisms
- 3.21 explain the meaning of critical angle c
- 3.22 know and use the relationship between critical angle and refractive index: sin c = 1/n
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what is meant by total internal reflection, including the importance of the critical angle, c
- know and use the relationship between the critical angle and the refractive index: sin   c = 1 n
- describe the role of total internal reflection in transmitting information along optical fibres and in prisms.
🔑 Key Words
- critical angle (c): the angle of incidence which causes the angle of refraction to be 90 degrees
- critical angle equation: sin   c = 1 n
- optical density: the degree to which light waves are slowed down in a medium; in a material with a high optical density, light waves travel more slowly than in a material with a lower optical density
- total internal reflection (TIR): when a light wave is reflected at the boundary between two different media; the reflection occurs when light is moving from a material which has a higher refractive index to one which has a lower refractive index
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Glass can have sharp edges; blocks should be checked in advance.
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
Lesson 31The Electromagnetic Spectrum – Long Wavelengths→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 106–109
📚 Specification Points
- 3.10 know that light is part of a continuous electromagnetic spectrum that includes radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma ray radiations, and that all these waves travel at the same speed in free space
- 3.11 know the order of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, including the colours of the visible spectrum
- 3.12 explain some of the uses of electromagnetic radiations, including: o radio waves: broadcasting and communications o microwaves: cooking and satellite transmissions o infrared: heaters and night vision equipment
- 3.13 explain the detrimental effects of excessive exposure of the human body to electromagnetic waves, including: o microwaves: internal heating of body tissue o infrared: skin burns and describe simple protective measures against the risks
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe visible light as part of the electromagnetic spectrum and that all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in free space
- give the order of the electromagnetic spectrum
- explain the uses of radio waves, microwaves, and infrared radiation
- explain the dangers of microwaves and infrared radiation and describe simple protective measures.
🔑 Key Words
- electromagnetic spectrum: the complete set of electromagnetic waves
- radio wave: electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelength, which are used in communications
- microwave: electromagnetic waves with wavelengths of a few cm, which are used for communications and cooking
- infrared radiation: electromagnetic waves with a wavelength longer than red visible light
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not look directly at the Sun.
- • Demonstrating the apparatus and the fact that there is a noticeable temperature rise is sufficient. You do not need to collect a complete set of data for students to analyse.
- • Students should predict what will happen to the thermometers. Ask: Which thermometer will show the greatest temperature increase?
Lesson 32The Electromagnetic Spectrum – Short Wavelengths→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 110-112
📚 Specification Points
- 3.10 know that light is part of a continuous electromagnetic spectrum that includes radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma ray radiations, and that all these waves travel at the same speed in free space
- 3.11 know the order of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, including the colours of the visible spectrum
- 3.12 explain some of the uses of electromagnetic radiations, including: o radio waves: broadcasting and communications o microwaves: cooking and satellite transmissions o infrared: heaters and night vision equipment
- 3.13 explain the detrimental effects of excessive exposure of the human body to electromagnetic waves, including: o microwaves: internal heating of body tissue o infrared: skin burns and describe simple protective measures against the risks
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the order of the colours of visible light in terms of wavelength and frequency
- explain some uses of visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays
- explain some of the dangers of ultraviolet and gamma rays and describe simple protective measures.
🔑 Key Words
- ionising radiation: this causes atoms to gain or lose electric charge, forming ions
- light: waves that can be detected by the eye
- ultraviolet radiation: electromagnetic radiation beyond the violet part of the visible spectrum and which is ionising
- X: -
- rays: high-frequency electromagnetic radiation produced by electron collisions
- gamma radiation: very high-frequency electromagnetic radiation produced by nuclear decay
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not look at the bulb in the ultraviolet lamp and do not allow it to shine on your skin.
- • Students should work in small groups for this practical task, moving between the three stations and spending approximately 3 minutes at each. As they do so you should perform the demonstration for gamma rays at the third station to each group. Instructions are shown below in Teacher demonstration 1: Demonstrating gamma radiation .
- • Do not allow the students to handle the gas mantle or radioactive rock.
Lesson 33Investigating the Speed of Sound in Air→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 124–125
Lab Book: Pages 25–26
📚 Specification Points
- 3.23 know that sound waves are longitudinal waves that can be reflected and refracted
- 3.25P practical: investigate the speed of sound in air Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the speed of sound in air
- reduce random timing errors by using repeating cycles.
🔑 Key Words
- random error: an error in measurements caused by random variations, such as reaction times
- percentage difference: the percentage difference between a measured value and the actual value
- mean: the average when all the numbers are added together and divided by how many there are
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear full shoes with closed heels and toes to protect their feet in case they drop the blocks.
- • Students should take care not to trap fingers or thumbs when clapping wooden blocks together.
- • Carry out the practical in a secure area, away from traffic or other hazards.
- • Students should follow the Method in the Lab Book to perform the core practical and record their results in the table on p. 25.
Lesson 34Sound Pitch and Volume→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 126–127
Lab Book: Pages 25–26
📚 Specification Points
- 3.24P know that the frequency range for human hearing is 20–20 000 Hz Phys only
- 3.26P understand how an oscilloscope and microphone can be used to display a sound wave Phys only
- 3.27P practical: investigate the frequency of a sound wave using an oscilloscope Phys only
- 3.28P understand how the pitch of a sound relates to the frequency of vibration of the source Phys only
- 3.29P understand how the loudness of a sound relates to the amplitude of vibration of the source Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- operate an oscilloscope to display sound waves
- read values from an oscilloscope to determine period and frequency for a sound wave
- describe the relationship between pitch and frequency for a sound wave
- describe the relationships between amplitude and loudness (volume) for a sound wave
- state the frequency range of human hearing.
🔑 Key Words
- displacement: distance travelled in a particular direction from a specified point
- period: the time it takes the source to produce one wave
- pitch: how humans perceive frequency of sound waves
- volume: how humans perceive amplitude of sound waves
- oscilloscope: a device which displays the waveforms of electrical signals
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Set the signal generator to produce a note of 50 Hz as this should be clearly audible to the students. The students should also see the waveform on the oscilloscope screen. Ask students: What will happen to the sound if I increase the amplitude of the signal? (Answer: It will be louder, the waves on the screen will be taller.)
- • Demonstrate the change, confirming the answer Tell the students: The greater the amplitude of a sound, the greater the volume and the louder the sound.
Lesson 35The Doppler Effect→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 104
📚 Specification Points
- 3.8 explain why there is a change in the observed frequency and wavelength of a wave when its source is moving relative to an observer and that this is known as the Doppler effect
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the change in wavelength of a wave when a source and observer move towards each other
- explain the change in wavelength of a wave when a source and observer move away from each other
- link a change in wavelength to a change in frequency
- state that a change in wavelength of a wave, when there is relative motion between a source and observer, is called the Doppler effect
- explain how the Doppler effect can apply to light as well as sound.
🔑 Key Words
- Doppler effect: the change in observed frequency and wavelength of a wave when the source is moving relative to the observer
- red shift: an increase in wavelength (decrease in frequency) observed when a wave source moves away from the observer
- blue shift: a decrease in wavelength (increase in frequency) observed when a wave source moves towards the observer
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Tie the string to the sound source securely and with tape.
- • Swing the sound source. Students should hear the pitch of the sound changing as the source moves relative to them. This will be a rising and falling of pitch.
Lesson 39The Particle Model→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 181–183
📚 Specification Points
- 5.8P explain why heating a system will change the energy stored within the system and raise its temperature or produce changes of state Phys only
- 5.9P describe the changes that occur when a solid melts to form a liquid, and when a liquid evaporates or boils to form a gas Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the arrangement and motion of the particles in solids, liquids, and gases
- describe the changes that occur to the particles during state changes.
🔑 Key Words
- boiling point: the change of state from a liquid to a gas at a specific temperature
- evaporation: a change of state from a liquid to a gas below its boiling point
- melting: the change of state from a solid to a liquid
- particle model of matter: the model scientists use to explain the behaviour of solids, liquids, and gases
- state of matter: either solid, liquid or gas
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection. Handle acids and alkalis with care; wash any splashes off skin immediately.
- Ethanol/spirit is flammable. Keep away from naked flames and sources of ignition.
- Carry out this work in a fume cupboard or well-ventilated area.
- Work in a well-ventilated area. Keep solvents away from naked flames — they are flammable.
Lesson 40Changing State→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 186–187
Lab Book: Pages 54–56
📚 Specification Points
- 5.8P explain why heating a system will change the energy stored within the system and raise its temperature or produce changes of state Phys only
- 5.9P describe the changes that occur when a solid melts to form a liquid, and when a liquid evaporates or boils to form a gas Phys only
- 5.10P describe the arrangement and motion of particles in solids, liquids, and gases Phys only
- 5.11P practical: obtain a temperature-time graph to show the constant temperature during a change of state Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that when a system is heated, its temperature may rise, or it may change state
- plan and complete an investigation to obtain a temperature–time graph for ice being heated at a constant rate to form water
- describe and explain the shape of the temperature–time graph for ice being heated at a constant rate to form water.
🔑 Key Words
- melting: the change of state from solid to liquid
- boiling: the change of state from liquid to gas at a specific temperature
- evaporation: the change of state from liquid to gas that occurs at the surface below boiling point
- condensation: the change of state from gas to liquid
- latent heat: the energy absorbed or released during a change of state without a change in temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should take care when handling hot apparatus.
- • Students should follow the method on p. 54 of the Lab Book to perform the core practical and record their results in the table.
Lesson 92Specific Heat Capacity→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 183–186
📚 Specification Points
- 5.2P use the following unit: joules/kilogram degree Celsius (J/kg °C) Phys only
- 5.12P know that specific heat capacity is the energy required to change the temperature of an object by one degree Celsius per kilogram of mass (J/kg °C) Phys only
- 5.13P use the equation: change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity × change in temperature, ∆Q=m × c × ∆T Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that specific heat capacity is the energy required to change the temperature of an object by one degree Celsius per kilogram of mass
- use the equation: change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity × change in temperature, \({∆} Q= m\times c\times{∆} T\).
🔑 Key Words
- change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity × change in temperature, \({∆} Q= m\times c\times{∆} T\)
- specific heat capacity: the energy required to change the temperature of an object by one degree Celsius per kilogram of mass ( J/kg ℃ )
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
Lesson 93Specific Heat Capacity Investigation→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 183–186
Lab Book: Pages 41–43
📚 Specification Points
- 5.2P use the following unit: joules/kilogram degree Celsius (J/kg °C) Phys only
- 5.13P use the equation: change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity × change in temperature, ∆Q=m × c × ∆T Phys only
- 5.14P practical: investigate the specific heat capacity of materials including water and some solids Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- measure the specific heat capacity of a solid
- measure the specific heat capacity of water
- process data to determine the specific heat capacity.
🔑 Key Words
- specific heat capacity: the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 °C
- thermal energy: the total kinetic energy of all particles in a substance
- joulemeter: an instrument used to measure energy transferred to a heater
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Clear up any spills immediately.
- • Take care with water around electrical appliances.
- • Take care when moving the immersion heater, it will get very hot.
- • Rinse any scalds under running water for 10 minutes.
Lesson 37Density→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 173–175
Lab Book: Pages 37–40
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: degree Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram (kg), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.3 know and use the relationship between density, mass and volume: density=mass/volume
- 5.4 practical: investigate density using direct measurements of mass and volume
🎯 Learning Objectives
- plan an investigation to find the density of a regular object
- plan an investigation to find the density of an irregular object by submersion in water.
🔑 Key Words
- density: \(\mathrm{density}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}}{\mathrm{volume}}\)
- volume of a cuboid: volume = length × width × height
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Mop up any spills straight away.
Lesson 38Density and Pressure→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 173–176
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.3 know and use the relationship between density, mass and volume: density=mass/volume
- 5.5 know and use the relationship between pressure, force and area: pressure=force/area
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship: \(\mathrm{density}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}}{\mathrm{volume}}\)
- know and use the relationship: \(\mathrm{pressure=\frac{force}{area}}\).
🔑 Key Words
- pascal: a unit of pressure where 1 pascal = 1 \(\mathrm{N/m^2}\)
- pressure: \(\mathrm{pressure=\frac{force}{area}}\)
Lesson 41Pressure in Fluids→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 176–179
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.6 understand how the pressure at a point in a gas or liquid at rest acts equally in all directions
- 5.7 know and use the relationship for pressure difference: pressure difference=height×density×gravitational field strength P=h×ρ×g
- 5.15 explain how molecules in a gas have random motion and that they exert a force and hence a pressure on the walls of a container
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain how the molecules in a gas exert a pressure on the walls of their container
- know and use the relationship: pressure difference = height × density × gravitational field strength.
🔑 Key Words
- pressure: force per unit area, measured in pascals (Pa)
- pascal (Pa): the unit of pressure, equal to 1 N/m²
- fluid: a substance that can flow; a liquid or a gas
- pressure in fluids: pressure increases with depth and acts equally in all directions at a point
Lesson 95Temperature in Kelvin→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 190–192
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram, kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.16 understand why there is an absolute zero of temperature which is -273 °C
- 5.17 describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
- 5.18 understand why an increase in temperature results in an increase in the average speed of gas molecules
- 5.19 know that the Kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
- know that the Kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules.
🔑 Key Words
- absolute zero: the lowest possible temperature (-273 °C or 0 K) at which particles have no kinetic energy
- kelvin (K): the SI unit of temperature; 0 K = -273 °C
- kinetic energy of particles: the energy of motion of particles, which increases with temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection and use heatproof gloves when handling hot equipment. Avoid touching the
Lesson 96Boyle's Law→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 187–189
📚 Specification Points
- 5.22 use the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature: p1V1 = p2V2
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain, for a fixed amount of gas, the qualitative relationship between pressure and volume at constant temperature
- use the relationship between the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature: p 1 V 1 = p 2 V 2
🔑 Key Words
- Boyle's law: at constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume (p₁V₁ = p₂V₂)
- inversely proportional: as one quantity increases, the other decreases by the same factor
Lesson 97The Pressure Law→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 187–192
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram, kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.20 explain, for a fixed amount of gas, the qualitative relationship between: • pressure and volume at constant temperature • pressure and Kelvin temperature at constant volume
- 5.21 use the relationship between the pressure and Kelvin temperature of a gas at constant volume: p1/T1 = p2/T2
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain, for a fixed amount of gas, the qualitative relationship between pressure and Kelvin temperature at constant volume
- use the relationship between the pressure and Kelvin temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume: p 1 T 1 = p 2 T 2
🔑 Key Words
- pressure law: at constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
- directly proportional: as one quantity increases, the other increases by the same factor
- absolute temperature: temperature measured in kelvin
Lesson 42Magnetism→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 197–198
📚 Specification Points
- 6.2 know that magnets repel and attract other magnets and attract magnetic substances
- 6.3 describe the properties of magnetically hard and soft materials
- 6.5 know that magnetism is induced in some materials when they are placed in a magnetic field
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the interactions between magnets
- categorise materials based on their magnetic properties
- describe induced magnetism.
🔑 Key Words
- induced magnet: material which becomes magnetised when it is placed near another magnet
- magnet: a material that is magnetised and has a magnetic field
- magnetically hard material: induced magnet which retains its magnetism when the other magnet is removed
- magnetically soft material: induced magnet which loses its magnetism when the other magnet is removed
- magnetic field: the region of space around a magnet where a magnetic material experiences a force
- magnetic substance: a material which is attracted to both north and south poles of a magnet e.g. iron, steel, nickel
- non-magnetic materials: materials which do not attract or repel a magnet e.g. plastic, wood
- permanent magnet: a material which remains magnetic when not near other magnets (within their magnetic field)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not use sharp objects.
- • Students should work individually or in pairs for this practical task.
- • Make sure students record observations. Display the table template in Slideshow: Results table 1 . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Slideshow: Results table 1
- • Ensure that students realise that not all metals are magnetic; only three common metals are: iron, nickel and cobalt. Some rare earth metals are magnetic, but the students do not need to recall these.
- • Students should note that opposite poles of magnets attract and like poles repel.
- • Be careful with the sharp end of any nail.
- • Students should work individually or pairs for this practical task.
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a simple table for analysis. Display the table template on Slideshow: Results table 2 . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Slideshow: Results table 2
Lesson 43Magnetic Fields→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 199–201
Lab Book: Pages 44–47
📚 Specification Points
- 6.4 understand the term 'magnetic field line'
- 6.6 practical: investigate the magnetic field pattern for a permanent bar magnet and between two bar magnets
- 6.7 describe how to use two permanent magnets to produce a uniform magnetic field pattern
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the term ‘magnetic field line’
- use a compass to plot the shape of magnetic fields surrounding a single magnet and pair of magnets.
🔑 Key Words
- magnetic field: the region of space around a magnet where a magnetic material experiences a force
- magnetic field line: a line showing the direction of the force produced by a magnet
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection to prevent the iron filings getting into eyes.
- • Wear eye protection to prevent the ironing filings getting into eyes.
Lesson 44Magnetic Fields Around Current-Carrying Wires→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 201–203
📚 Specification Points
- 6.8 know that an electric current in a conductor produces a magnetic field around it
- 6.9P describe the construction of electromagnets Phys only
- 6.10P draw magnetic field patterns for a straight wire, a flat circular coil and a solenoid when each is carrying a current Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the magnetic effect of a current in a wire
- draw magnetic field patterns produced by a current-carrying wire and a solenoid
- describe the construction of an electromagnet.
🔑 Key Words
- electromagnet: a magnet produced by passing an electric current through a solenoid
- solenoid: a long cylindrical coil of wire
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Do not touch the wire while the current is flowing, as it can get very hot. Switch
Lesson 45The Motor Effect→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 206–208
📚 Specification Points
- 6.11P know that there is a force on a charged particle when it moves in a magnetic field as long as its motion is not parallel to the field Phys only
- 6.12 understand why a force is exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field and how this effect is applied in simple d.c. electric motors and loudspeakers
- 6.13 use the left-hand rule to predict the direction of the resulting force when a wire carries a current perpendicular to a magnetic field
- 6.14 describe how the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field changes with the magnitude and direction of the field and current
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the force on a charged particle when it moves in a magnetic field if its motion is not parallel to the field
- describe the force on a current-carrying wire when it is placed in a magnetic field.
🔑 Key Words
- motor effect: the force affecting a changed particle when if moves through a magnetic field
- Fleming’s left-hand rule: a rule to find the direction of the current (second finger), magnetic field (first finger) or force on a current-carrying wire (thumb); the first finger, second finger and thumb must be placed perpendicular to each other
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • A strong bar magnet should be sufficient to cause deflection. Be careful not to tap the glass with the magnet or it may be damaged. Hold the magnet firmly.
Lesson 46Motors and Speakers→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 208–209
📚 Specification Points
- 6.12 understand why a force is exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field and how this effect is applied in simple d.c. electric motors and loudspeakers
- 6.13 use the left-hand rule to predict the direction of the resulting force when a wire carries a current perpendicular to a magnetic field
- 6.14 describe how the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field changes with the magnitude and direction of the field and current
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the operation of a loudspeaker
- describe the operation of a simple electric motor
- construct a simple electric motor.
🔑 Key Words
- electric motor: the most important use of the motor effect, where movement is produced from current and a magnetic field
- loudspeaker: uses the motor effect to produce vibrations (sounds) from varying electrical signals
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Avoid high volumes and very high frequencies which can be annoying.
Lesson 98Electromagnetic Induction→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 210–212
📚 Specification Points
- 6.15 know that a voltage is induced in a conductor or a coil when it moves through a magnetic field or when a magnetic field changes through it and describe the factors that affect the size of the induced voltage
- 6.16 describe the generation of electricity by the rotation of a magnet within a coil of wire and of a coil of wire within a magnetic field, and describe the factors that affect the size of the induced voltage
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain that a voltage is induced in a conductor or a coil when it moves through a magnetic field or when a magnetic field changes through it
- describe the generation of electricity by the rotation of a magnet within a coil of wire and of a coil of wire within a magnetic field.
🔑 Key Words
- electromagnetic induction: generating a voltage by changing the magnetic field passing through a wire or coil
- generator: a device which uses electromagnetic induction to produce currents
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care with the large magnet, this can be heavy.
- There are no safety considerations.
- • Take care not to turn the generator too quickly and ‘blow’ the bulb or damage the oscilloscope.
Lesson 99Transformers→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 212–214
📚 Specification Points
- 6.17P describe the structure of a transformer, and understand that a transformer changes the size of an alternating voltage by having different numbers of turns on the input and output sides Phys only
- 6.18P explain the use of step-up and step-down transformers in the large-scale generation and transmission of electrical energy Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a transformer as a device that changes the size of an alternating voltage by having different numbers of turns on the input and output sides
- explain the use of step-up and step-down transformers in the large-scale generation and transmission of electrical energy.
🔑 Key Words
- national grid: a system that connects power stations and cities to distribute electrical power
- step-down transformer: a transformer that decreases voltage
- step-up transformer: a transformer that increases voltage
- transformer: a device designed to change the voltage of an a.c. supply
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not produce output voltages above 12 V.
Lesson 100Transformer Calculations→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 212–213
📚 Specification Points
- 6.19P know and use the relationship between input (primary) and output (secondary) voltages and the turns ratio for a transformer: (input (primary) voltage)/(output (secondary) voltage)=(primary turns)/(secondary turns) Phys only
- 6.20P know and use the relationship: input power = output power, Vp Ip=Vs Is, for 100% efficiency Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall and use the relationship between input (primary) and output (secondary) voltages and the turns ratio for a transformer: \(\frac{\mathrm{input}\;(\mathrm{primary})\;\mathrm{voltage}}{\mathrm{output}\;(\mathrm{secondary})\;\mathrm{voltage}}=\frac{\mathrm{primary}\;\mathrm{turns}}{\mathrm{secondary}\;\mathrm{turns}}\)
- recall and use the relationship: input power = output power.
🔑 Key Words
- transformer equation: \(\frac{\mathrm{input}\;(\mathrm{primary})\;\mathrm{voltage}}{\mathrm{output}\;(\mathrm{secondary})\;\mathrm{voltage}}=\frac{\mathrm{primary}\;\mathrm{turns}}{\mathrm{secondary}\;\mathrm{turns}}\)
- transformer power equation: input power = output power or \(V_\mathrm pI_\mathrm p = V_\mathrm sI_\mathrm s\)
Lesson 49The Structure of the Atom→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 221–224
📚 Specification Points
- 7.2 describe the structure of an atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons and use symbols such as to describe particular nuclei
- 7.3 know the terms atomic (proton) number, mass (nucleon) number and isotope
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of the atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons
- understand and use \({}_Z^A\text{X}\) notation for describing a nucleus
- explain what is meant by an isotope of a particular element.
🔑 Key Words
- atomic number: number of protons
- isotope: atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons in the nucleus
- mass number: number of protons plus number of neutrons
- nucleon number: number of protons plus number of neutrons
Lesson 50Radioactive Decay→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 224–226
📚 Specification Points
- 7.4 know that alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, and gamma (γ) rays are ionising radiations emitted from unstable nuclei in a random process
- 7.5 describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles and gamma (γ) rays, and recall that they may be distinguished in terms of penetrating power and ability to ionise
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what an ion is and how it forms in the process of ionisation
- understand that radioactive decay is both a random and spontaneous process
- describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β-) particles, and gamma (γ) rays.
🔑 Key Words
- alpha particle: two protons and two neutrons
- beta particle: electron from inside the nucleus
- gamma rays: a high energy electromagnetic wave
- ion: atom which has gained or lost electrons
- random: we cannot predict which nucleus will decay next, or when a particular nucleus will decay
- spontaneous: the decay of a nucleus cannot be influenced with any changes to conditions, for example, chemical reactions, temperature, pressure
Lesson 51Properties of Radiation→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 224–226
Lab Book: Pages 48–50
📚 Specification Points
- 7.5 describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles and gamma (γ) rays, and recall that they may be distinguished in terms of penetrating power and ability to ionise
- 7.6 practical: investigate the penetration powers of different types of radiation using either radioactive sources or simulations
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β-) particles, and gamma (γ) rays
- understand the penetration power of each type of radiation and relate this to their ability to ionise.
🔑 Key Words
- alpha particle (α): a positively charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons, emitted during radioactive decay
- beta particle (β⁻): a fast-moving electron emitted from the nucleus during radioactive decay
- gamma ray (γ): a high-energy electromagnetic wave emitted from the nucleus
- ionising power: the ability of radiation to remove electrons from atoms
- penetrating power: the ability of radiation to pass through materials
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Sources should not be pointed towards the body or face.
- • When not in use, radioactive sources should be kept in a locked lead-lined safe.
Lesson 52Nuclear Decay Equations→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 227–230
📚 Specification Points
- 7.7 describe the effects on the atomic and mass numbers of a nucleus of the emission of each of the four main types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma and neutron radiation)
- 7.8 understand how to balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge
🎯 Learning Objectives
- balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge for alpha emission
- balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge for beta emission
- balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge for gamma emission.
🔑 Key Words
- alpha decay: the process through which an unstable nucleus becomes more stable by emitting an alpha particle
- beta decay: the process through which an unstable nucleus becomes more stable by emitting a beta particle
- gamma decay: the process through which an unstable nucleus becomes more stable by emitting a gamma ray
Lesson 53Detecting and Measuring Radioactive Decay→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 233–237
📚 Specification Points
- 7.1 use the following units: becquerel (Bq), hour (h), minute (min) and second (s)
- 7.9 know that photographic film or a Geiger-Muller detector can detect ionising radiations
- 7.10 explain the sources of background (ionising) radiation from Earth and space
- 7.11 know that the activity of a radioactive source decreases over a period of time and is measured in becquerels
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that photographic film or a Geiger−Müller detector can detect ionising radiation
- describe and explain background radiation
- state that the activity of a radioactive source decreases over time and is measured in becquerels.
🔑 Key Words
- activity: the number of decays per second, measured in becquerels
- background radiation: radiation around us all the time
- becquerel: unit of activity, 1 Bq = 1 decay per second
Lesson 54Half-life→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 237–239
📚 Specification Points
- 7.12 know the definition of the term half-life and understand that it is different for different radioactive isotopes
- 7.13 use the concept of the half-life to carry out simple calculations on activity, including graphical methods
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand and use the term half-life
- use the concept of the half-life to carry out simple calculations on activity.
🔑 Key Words
- half-life: the time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei (or activity) of a sample to halve
- radioactive decay: the random process by which an unstable nucleus emits radiation
- activity: the number of radioactive decays per second, measured in becquerels (Bq)
Lesson 55Dangers of Radioactivity→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 243 and 247–248
📚 Specification Points
- 7.15 describe the difference between contamination and irradiation
- 7.16 describe the dangers of ionising radiations, including: • that radiation can cause mutations in living organisms • that radiation can damage cells and tissue • the problems arising from the disposal of radioactive waste and how the associated risks can be reduced
🎯 Learning Objectives
- to explain the danger of radiation to humans
- how the problems arising from the disposal of radioactive waste and the associated risks can be reduced.
🔑 Key Words
- contamination: unwanted presence of radioactive material
- irradiation: past exposure to radiation, does not emit radiation
Lesson 56Uses of Radioactivity 1→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 243–246
📚 Specification Points
- 7.14 describe uses of radioactivity in industry and medicine
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe uses of radioactivity in industry, such as thickness monitoring and tracers
- describe uses of radioactivity in medicine, such as diagnosis and treatment of cancer
- explain why specific types of radiation are chosen for different applications
🔑 Key Words
- carbon dating: a method for determining the age of something containing organic material using the half-life of carbon-14
- carbon-14: a radioactive isotope of carbon
Lesson 57Uses of Radioactivity 2→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 241–243
📚 Specification Points
- 7.14 describe uses of radioactivity in industry and medicine
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe and explain uses of radioactivity in medicine.
🔑 Key Words
- tracer: a radioactive substance introduced into a system to track the flow or movement of materials
- radiotherapy: the use of ionising radiation to destroy cancer cells
- sterilisation: the use of gamma radiation to kill bacteria on medical instruments or food
Lesson 106Nuclear Fission→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 250–253
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.18 understand how a nucleus of U-235 can be split (the process of fission) by collision with a neutron, and that this process releases energy as kinetic energy of the fission products
- 7.19 know that the fission of U-235 produces two radioactive daughter nuclei and a small number of neutrons
- 7.20 describe how a chain reaction can be set up if the neutrons produced by one fission strike other U-235 nuclei
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how a nucleus of U-235 can be split by absorption of a neutron, releasing energy as kinetic energy of the fission products and producing two radioactive daughter nuclei and a small number of neutrons
- describe how a chain reaction can be set up if the neutrons produced by one fission strike other U-235 nuclei.
🔑 Key Words
- chain reaction: occurs when the fission of one nucleus releases two or three neutrons which cause other nuclei to undergo fission
- daughter nuclei: two smaller nuclei formed as a result of nuclear fission
- fissile: a (large) nuclei which can undergo fission
- fission: splitting up of a large nucleus to form smaller nuclei
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
- • Students should work in small groups, from two to four students, to carry out the task. They should answer the worksheet questions in their exercise books as they work through the task. Worksheet 2 Answer sheet
Lesson 107Fission Reactors→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 250–253
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.21 describe the role played by the control rods and moderator in the fission process
- 7.22 understand the role of shielding around a nuclear reactor
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process of nuclear fission in a reactor
- explain the roles of control rods, moderator and shielding in a fission reactor
- understand that nuclear fission is a source of energy
🔑 Key Words
- control rods: rods made of boron or cadmium that control the rate of fission
- moderator: a material such as water or graphite which is used to slow down the neutrons
Lesson 108Nuclear Fusion→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 250–253
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.23 explain the difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission
- 7.24 describe nuclear fusion as the creation of larger nuclei resulting in a loss of mass from smaller nuclei, accompanied by a release of energy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission
- describe nuclear fusion as the joining of small nuclei to form larger nuclei with a loss of mass
- understand that fusion releases energy and is the energy source for stars
🔑 Key Words
- nuclear fusion: the joining of two small atomic nuclei to form a larger nucleus, releasing energy
- nuclear fission: the splitting of a large atomic nucleus into two smaller nuclei, releasing energy
- mass defect: the difference in mass between the reactants and products of a nuclear reaction
- plasma: an extremely hot gas in which atoms are stripped of their electrons
Lesson 109Fusion Reactors and the Sun→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 253–254
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.25 know that fusion is the energy source for stars
- 7.26 explain why nuclear fusion does not happen at low temperatures and pressure, due to electrostatic repulsion of protons
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the conditions necessary for nuclear fusion in stars/the Sun
- explain the challenges of designing the nuclear fusion reactor for a power station.
🔑 Key Words
- nuclear fusion: the joining of light nuclei to form heavier nuclei, releasing energy
- electrostatic repulsion: the force that pushes positively charged nuclei apart
- plasma: a state of matter at extremely high temperatures where electrons are separated from nuclei
- star: a massive body that generates energy through nuclear fusion
Lesson 59Motion in the Universe→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 259–266
📚 Specification Points
- 8.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), newton (N), newton/kilogram (N/kg)
- 8.2 know that: • the universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies • a galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars • our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy
- 8.3 understand why gravitational field strength, g, varies and know that it is different on other planets and the Moon from that on the Earth
- 8.4 explain that gravitational force: • causes moons to orbit planets • causes the planets to orbit the Sun • causes artificial satellites to orbit the Earth • causes comets to orbit the Sun
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe some of the structure of the Universe:the Universe as a large collection of billions of galaxiesa galaxy is a large collection of billions of starsour Solar System is in the Milky Way galaxy
- the Universe as a large collection of billions of galaxies
- a galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars
- our Solar System is in the Milky Way galaxy
- explain why gravitational field strength,g, varies
- explain the effects of gravitational force on the Solar System
- state that gravitational force causes artificial satellites to orbit
- the
- Earth.
🔑 Key Words
- galaxy: a collection of billions of stars held together by gravitational forces
- moon: an object in orbit around a planet
- planet: a large, spherical, object in orbit around a star
- solar system: a star and the contents in orbit around it (planets, asteroids and comets)
- Universe: all the matter and energy in existence
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Make sure that the space is safe to release the string.
- • Do not spin the bung quickly or use a large one.
Lesson 60Orbital Motion→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 261–264
📚 Specification Points
- 8.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s),newton (N), second (s)
- 8.4 explain that gravitational force: • causes moons to orbit planets • causes the planets to orbit the Sun • causes artificial satellites to orbit the Earth • causes comets to orbit the Sun
- 8.5 describe the differences in the orbits of comets, moons and planets
- 8.6 use the relationship between orbital speed, orbital radius and time period: orbital speed = 2 × π × orbital radius/time period
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how gravitational forces cause comets to orbit the Sun in elliptical paths
- describe the differences in the orbits of comets, moons and planets
- use the relationship between orbital speed, orbital radius and time period for planetary orbits.
🔑 Key Words
- comet: a ball of ice and rock which orbits the Sun in an elliptical orbit
- elliptical orbit: an orbit which is like a squashed circle
- heliocentric: a model of the Solar System which places the Sun at the centre with the planets in orbit around it
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection
Lesson 61Life Cycle of a Star→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 268–269
📚 Specification Points
- 8.9 describe the evolution of stars of similar mass to the Sun through the following stages: • nebula • star (main sequence) • red giant • white dwarf
- 8.10 describe the evolution of stars with a mass larger than the Sun
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the evolution of stars of similar mass to the Sun through the stages of nebula, star (main sequence), red giant and white dwarf
- describe the evolution of stars with a mass larger than the Sun.
🔑 Key Words
- black hole: the remains of the largest stars where light cannot escape
- main sequence: the part of the life cycle of a star where it is stable
- nebula: a cloud of gases and dust
- neutron star: the remains of some supernova explosions, composed of only neutrons
- protostar: a hot ball of gas which will evolve into a star
- red giant: a large mass star with a low surface temperature
- red supergiant: a very large mass star with a low surface temperature
- supernova: the explosion of a very large star
- white dwarf: the remains of the core of a star which are at a very high temperature
Lesson 62Classifying Stars→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 266–267
📚 Specification Points
- 5.17 describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
- 8.7 understand how stars can be classified according to their colour
- 8.8 know that a star's colour is related to its surface temperature
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how stars are classified based on their colour
- discuss how a star’s temperature affects its colour
- convert between the degree Celsius and Kelvin scales.
🔑 Key Words
- Kelvin scale: a temperature scale used by scientists based on the behaviour of matter, the symbol used is K and the lowest possible temperature is 0 K
- stellar classification: a system of classifying stars by their colour or temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The lamp will become very hot – do not allow the students to touch it.
- • Do not let the students stare into the bright light.
Lesson 63The Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 267–269
📚 Specification Points
- 8.11P understand how the brightness of a star at a standard distance can be represented using absolute magnitude Phys only
- 8.12P draw the main components of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (HR diagram) Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how the brightness of a star at a standard distance can be represented using absolute magnitude
- draw the main components of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram).
🔑 Key Words
- absolute magnitude: a measure of how bright a star really is, as measured from a standard distance, the smaller the magnitude the brighter the star is
- apparent magnitude: a measure of how bright a star appears from Earth, the smaller the magnitude the brighter the star is
- Hertzsprung-Russell diagram: a diagram comparing the magnitude of a star to its temperature
- luminosity: a measure of the brightness of a light source, higher luminosity is brighter
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not shine bright lights into anybody’s eye.
Lesson 103Introducing Red-Shift→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 271–273
📚 Specification Points
- 8.15P describe that if a wave source is moving relative to an observer there will be a change in the observed frequency and wavelength Phys only
- 8.17P describe the red-shift in light received from galaxies at different distances away from the Earth Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe that if a wave source is moving relative to an observer there will be a change in the observed frequency and wavelength
- state that there is a red-shift in light received from distant galaxies.
🔑 Key Words
- absorption spectrum: a spectrum with gaps at specific wavelengths caused by absorption by specific elements
- continuous spectrum: a spectrum containing all wavelengths (colours)
- Doppler effect: the change in frequency (and wavelength) caused by the relative movement of the source of the waves or the observer
- emission spectrum: a spectrum with only specific wavelengths emitted by specific elements
- red-shift: increase in wavelength of light emitted by a galaxy moving away from us
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Gas discharge tubes are fragile; handle with care.
Lesson 104The Red-Shift Equation→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 271–273
📚 Specification Points
- 8.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s) and second (s)
- 8.16P use the equation relating change in wavelength, wavelength, velocity of a galaxy and the speed of light: change in wavelength/reference wavelength = velocity of a galaxy/speed of light Phys only
- 8.17P describe the red-shift in light received from galaxies at different distances away from the Earth Phys only
- 8.18P explain why the red-shift of galaxies provides evidence for the expansion of the universe Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the equation relating change in wavelength, original wavelength, velocity of a galaxy and the speed of light:\(\;\mathrm{\frac{change\;in\;wavelength}{wavelength}}=\mathrm{\frac{velocity\;of\;galaxy}{speed\;of\;light}}\)
- describe the red-shift in light received from galaxies at different distances away from the Earth and explain why the red-shift of galaxies provides evidence for the expansion of the Universe. Slideshow: Learning objectives
🔑 Key Words
- Doppler shift equation: \(\mathrm{\frac{change\;in\;wavelength}{wavelength}}=\mathrm{\frac{velocity\;of\;galaxy}{speed\;of\;light}}\) or \(\frac{\lambda-\lambda_\circ}{\lambda_\circ}=\frac{\triangle\lambda}{\lambda_\circ}=\frac vc\)
- recessional velocity: the velocity at which a galaxy is moving away from us
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Don’t burst the balloon.
Lesson 105The Big Bang→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 271–274
📚 Specification Points
- 8.13P describe the past revolution of the universe and the main arguments in favour of the Big Bang theory Phys only
- 8.14P describe evidence that supports the Big Bang theory (red-shift and cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation) Phys only
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the past evolution of the Universe and the evidence that supports the Big Bang theory (red-shift and cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation).
🔑 Key Words
- Big Bang theory: the theory that the universe began from a single point in a massive explosion and has been expanding ever since
- red shift: the increase in wavelength of light from distant galaxies, providing evidence that the universe is expanding
- cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB): low-energy radiation left over from the early universe, providing evidence for the Big Bang
Double Award Science — 4DS0 Core lessons across all three sciences. B/C/P-only spec points excluded. Use the Subject filter above to jump to a science.
🌿 Biology
Lesson 1The Characteristics of Living Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 3–4
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 understand how living organisms share the following characteristics: they require nutrition they respire they excrete their waste they respond to their surroundings they move they control their internal conditions they reproduce they grow and develop
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the characteristics of life
- describe the characteristics of life.
🔑 Key Words
- cell: the basic unit that living organisms are made of
- excretion: getting rid of waste substances that are produced inside an organism
- homeostasis: keeping the conditions inside an organism at constant levels
- multicellular: made of many cells
- nutrition: the process by which an organism gets the substances it needs for energy, health and growth
- respiration: the process by which organisms release energy from their food
- stimulus: a change that an organism detects, inside or outside its body
- unicellular: made of one cell
Lesson 2The Structures of Animal and Plant Cells→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 4–6
📚 Specification Points
- 2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole
- 2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole
- 2.4 know the similarities and differences in the structure of plant and animal cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the cell structures in animal and plant cells
- describe the functions of cell structures in animal and plant cells
- compare the structures of plant and animal cells.
🔑 Key Words
- cell membrane: thin outer covering of a cell that controls what enters and leaves it
- cell wall: a tough layer of material around some cells that is used for protection and support and in plant cells it is stiff and made of cellulose
- chlorophyll: green substance found inside chloroplasts that traps energy from light
- chloroplast: green cell structure in which glucose is produced by photosynthesis
- chromosome: structure inside the nucleus that contains genes
- cytoplasm: watery jelly inside a cell where the cell’s activities take place
- enzyme: a protein that controls a chemical reaction in the cytoplasm
- gene: section of genetic material (usually DNA) that controls part of the activity of a cell
- mitochondrion: cell structure in which respiration using oxygen occurs and the plural is mitochondria
- nucleus: cell structure that controls the cell
- organelle: small part of a cell that has a certain function and chloroplasts, nuclei and mitochondria are all organelles
- partially permeable membranes: membranes that allow some substances through them but not others
- ribosome: cell structure that makes proteins
- vacuole: space surrounded by a membrane in the cytoplasm of cells. Plant cells have a large permanent vacuole, which stores water and nutrients, and helps to support the plant by keeping the cells rigid.
Lesson 3Features of Eukaryotic Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 25–28
📚 Specification Points
- 1.2 describe the common features shown by eukaryotic organisms: plants, animals, fungi and protoctists Plants: these are multicellular organisms; their cells contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out photosynthesis; their cells have cellulose cell walls; they store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose. Examples include flowering plants, such as a cereal (for example, maize), and an herbaceous legume (for example, peas or beans). Animals: these are multicellular organisms; their cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not able to carry out photosynthesis; they have no cell walls; they usually have nervous co-ordination and are able to move from one place to another: they often store carbohydrate as glycogen. Examples include mammals (for example, humans) and insects (for example, housefly and mosquito). Fungi: these are organisms that are not able to carry out photosynthesis; their body is usually organised into a mycelium made from thread-like structures called hyphae, which contain many nuclei; some examples are single-celled; their cells have walls made of chitin; they feed by extracellular secretion of digestive enzymes onto food material and absorption of the organic products; this is known as saprotrophic nutrition; they may store carbohydrate as glycogen. Examples include Mucor, which has the typical fungal hyphal structure, and yeast, which is single-celled. Protoctists: these are microscopic single-celled organisms. Some, like Amoeba, that live in pond water, have features like an animal cell, while others, like Chlorella, have chloroplasts and are more like plants. A pathogenic example is Plasmodium, responsible for causing malaria.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term eukaryotic
- describe plants, animals and many fungi as multicellular organisms
- describe the features of plants, animals, fungi and protoctists
- compare the features of plants, animals, fungi and protoctists using examples.
🔑 Key Words
- alga: protoctist that can photosynthesise. Plural is algae.
- Amoeba: common protoctist (and a protozoan)
- cellulose: type of carbohydrate found in the cell walls of plants and some protoctists
- chitin:type of carbohydrate found in the cell walls of fungi
- Chlorella: common alga (protoctist)
- eukaryotic:describes organisms with cells that contain nuclei, mitochondria and other organelles with membranes around them. Animals, plants, fungi and protoctists are all eukaryotes.
- glycogen: storage carbohydrate made in animals and fungi. Found in liver and muscles.
- hypha: thread-like filament of cells in fungi
- invertebrate: animal without a vertebral column (backbone)
- kingdom: Biologists often divide living things into five large groups, called kingdoms: plants, animals, fungi, protoctists and bacteria.
- multicellular: made of many cells
- Mucor: a mould fungus
- mycelium:massive network of hyphae in multicellular fungi
- nervous system: network of nerve cells that carry information from one part of an animal to another
- pathogen: microorganism that causes disease
- Plasmodium: protoctist that causes malaria
- prokaryotic:describes organisms whose cells have organelles that do not have membranes around them (such as nuclei and mitochondria). Bacteria are prokaryotes.
- protoctist: kingdom of eukaryotic organisms, most of which are single-celled.
- protozoan: single-celled protoctist that needs to feed on other organisms or their remains. Plural is protozoa.
- saprophytic:describes organisms that feed on dead or decaying matter. Fungi are saprophytes.
- starch: storage carbohydrate made in plants
- sucrose: carbohydrate (a sugar) made in plants, which some plants store
- unicellular: made of one cell
- vertebrate: animal with a vertebral column (backbone)
- yeast: a unicellular fungus
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should not seal a dish all the way around the join between its top and base, since this can allow the growth of dangerous anaerobic organisms. Using two pieces of tape allows some air to enter the dish.
- • Tell the students that, once sealed, the plates must not be reopened.
- • Students should examine the plates and record their results. Students should dispose the plates safely (e.g. using an autoclave), according to your school and country’s safety procedures.
- • Ask students to wash their hands after handling the dish.
- • After the method to expose the plates has been followed, the dishes should be left upside down in a warm place (or incubator set at 25 °C). Colonies should appear within 48 hours. Plates should not be left for much longer than 48 hours to prevent overgrowth of colonies.
Lesson 4Prokaryotic Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 28–29
📚 Specification Points
- 1.3 describe the common features shown by prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria Bacteria: these are microscopic single-celled organisms; they have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids; they lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA; some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis but most feed off other living or dead organisms. Examples include Lactobacillus bulgaricus, a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk, and Pneumococcus, a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term prokaryotic
- identify prokaryotic features from images of bacteria
- describe the functions of the different features of bacterial cells
- describe the roles of:many bacteria as decomposersLactobacillus bulgaricusin the production of yoghurtPneumococcusin the development of pneumonia.
- many bacteria as decomposers
- Lactobacillus bulgaricusin the production of yoghurt
- Pneumococcusin the development of pneumonia.
🔑 Key Words
- bacteria:small single-celled organisms that are prokaryotic
- capsule:an outer layer that protects bacteria
- flagellum:a tail-like structure used for movement in some bacteria
- nucleoid:an area of the cytoplasm in a bacterial cell in which there is a circular chromosome
- plasmids:small circular pieces of DNA that are found in the cytoplasm of bacterial cells.
- prokaryote:an organism with cells that lack a nucleus
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students must not open the plates.
- • Students should wash their hands after handling the plates.
- • Students should dispose of all plates safely (e.g. using an autoclave), according to your school and country’s safety procedures.
Lesson 5Pathogens→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 28–29
📚 Specification Points
- 1.4 understand the term pathogen and know that pathogens may include fungi, bacteria, protoctists or viruses Viruses: these are not living organisms. They are small particles, smaller than bacteria; they are parasitic and can reproduce only inside living cells; they infect every type of living organism. They have a wide variety of shapes and sizes; they have no cellular structure but have a protein coat and contain one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. Examples include the tobacco mosaic virus that causes discolouring of the leaves of tobacco plants by preventing the formation of chloroplasts, the influenza virus that causes ‘flu’ and the HIV virus that causes AIDS.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term pathogen
- recognise that pathogens can be bacteria, fungi, viruses or protoctists
- outline the basic parts of a virus particle
- explain why viruses are not classed as living
- describe the effects of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), the influenza virus and HIV.
🔑 Key Words
- DNA:genetic material found in most organisms, which stores instructions
- nucleic acid: either RNA or DNA
- parasite:an organism that lives in or on another organism, which it harms (usually by feeding on it)
- pathogen: microorganism that causes disease
- protein coat: tough layer surrounding the genetic material in a virus
- RNA:genetic material similar to DNA that stores instructions in some viruses
- virus:non-living particle that can make copies of itself in living cells.
Lesson 6Cell Differentiation and Stem Cells→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 18–21
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems
- explain the need for cell differentiation to produce specialised cells
- discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using stem cells in medicine.
🔑 Key Words
- adult stem cell: stem cell that can differentiate into one of a small range of specialised cells
- differentiation:a process during which a cell changes in structure to be able to perform a particular function
- embryonic stem cell: stem cell that can differentiate into any specialised cell
- ethics: what people believe is fair or right or wrong
- meristem:area of stem cells found near the growing part of a root or shoot in plants
- mitosis: type of cell division in which one cell becomes two identical cells
- organ system: a group of organs working together to perform an important job
- organ: a group of tissues working together to perform an important job
- stem cell:an undifferentiated cell that can give rise to other types of cells
- tissue: a group of the same type of cells working together
- zygote:a single cell formed by the fusion of a male and a female sex cell
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Handle glass slides and coverslips carefully — they break easily and can be sharp.
Lesson 7Biological Molecules 1 – Carbohydrates→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 53–55 and 58
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates
- 2.8 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugars, protein from amino acids, and lipid from fatty acids and glycerol
- 2.9 practical: investigate food samples for the presence of glucose and starch
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recognise that carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are organic molecules
- name the reagents used to test for glucose and starch
- carry out tests for simple sugars (glucose) and starch (part of Core Practical 1) and know the positive results when testing for glucose and starch
- recognise that starch and simple sugars are carbohydrates and how starch is synthesised from, and can be broken down into, simple sugars.
🔑 Key Words
- element:a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler forms
- macromolecules:large molecules
- precipitate:solid particles that sometimes form in a solution
- reagents:chemicals used to analyse substances
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should wash any splashed liquids quickly from skin.
- • Students should not taste any of the food.
- • Ask students to take care with hot water in the water bath.
- • Remind students that Benedict’s solution can be harmful to skin and eyes.
- • Students should report any spillages and wash hands after finishing.
Lesson 8Biological Molecules 2 – Lipids and Proteins→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 54–55 and 58
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates
- 2.8 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugars, protein from amino acids, and lipid from fatty acids and glycerol
- 2.9 practical: investigate food samples for the presence of glucose and starch
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe lipids as fats and oils, made of the subunits glycerol and fatty acids and describe proteins as polymers of amino acids
- name the reagents used to test for lipids and proteins
- carry out tests for lipids and proteins (part of Core Practical 1) and know the positive results when testing for lipids and proteins.
🔑 Key Words
- emulsion: droplets of one liquid suspended in another liquid
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should wash any splashed liquids quickly from skin.
- • Students should not taste any of the food.
- • Remind students that biuret reagent is corrosive and can be harmful to skin and eyes.
- • Students should report any spillages and wash hands after finishing.
Lesson 9Enzyme Action and the Effect of Temperature→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 6–12
📚 Specification Points
- 2.10 understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions
- 2.11 understand how temperature changes can affect enzyme function, including changes to the shape of active site
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term biological catalyst
- explain the action of enzymes on substrates
- explain the effect of temperature on enzyme activity.
🔑 Key Words
- active site: a part of an enzyme molecule with a specific shape where a particular substrate will bind
- catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed
- denatured: when the shape of an enzyme's active site has been changed so that it no longer fits a particular substrate and the enzyme cannot work
- optimum temperature: the temperature at which the rate of a reaction is the fastest
- substrate: a substance on which an enzyme acts
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should take care when using hydrogen peroxide solution – it can cause irritation.
- • Students should take care when using the glowing splint which relights with the oxygen.
- • Remind students that hydrogen peroxide is made during respiration and can damage tissues so it has to be broken down quickly by the enzyme catalase.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 7–10
📚 Specification Points
- 2.12 practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperatures
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a method that can be used to investigate the effect of temperature on enzyme activity
- explain the control variables in an investigation on the effect of temperature on enzyme activity
- interpret data from an investigation on the effect of temperature on enzyme activity and calculate rates of reaction.
🔑 Key Words
- control:the part of an experiment that is the standard to which the results can be compared
- control variable:a factor that is kept constant throughout an investigation
- variable:a factor in an investigation that can affect the outcome of the investigation
Lesson 11The Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 8
📚 Specification Points
- 2.13 understand how enzyme function can be affected by changes in pH altering the active site
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the effect of pH on acidity and alkalinity
- explain the effect of pH on enzyme activity
- interpret data to identify the optimum pH value for different enzymes.
🔑 Key Words
- alkali: a soluble base
- pH: the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Acids have a pH value of below 7. Alkalis have a pH value of above 7. A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral.
- base: hydroxides of alkaline metals and solutions of ammonia; bases neutralise acids by reacting with the free hydrogen ions in an acid solution
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not directly touch any of the substances.
- • Report and deal with any spillages according to your school’s guidelines and any local or national regulations.
- • How precise are the universal indicator solution readings ? (Answer: not as precise as pH probe as we do not get a reading in between whole numbers.)
- • Students should not directly touch any of the substances.
- • Students should report any spillages.
- • Students should wash hands after the practical.
- • Remind students that each substance should be clearly labelled and with its own pipette or spatula so there is no cross-contamination as students take some of the substance onto a dimple tile to test for pH.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 8 and 11
Lab Book: Pages 10–12
📚 Specification Points
- 2.13 understand how enzyme function can be affected by changes in pH affecting the active site
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a method that can be used to investigate the effect of pH on enzyme activity
- explain the control variables in an investigation on the effect of pH on enzyme activity
- interpret data from an investigation on the effect of pH on enzyme activity and calculate rates of reaction.
🔑 Key Words
- accuracy: how close results are to a true value. For example, how well does a measuring instrument determine the variable it is meant to measure?
- anomalous result: a result that does not fit the pattern of other results
- precision: how consistent results are if measurements are repeated
- reliability: how consistently a method measures something. If a test is repeated and produces exactly the same result, it is 10⁰% reliable.
- validity: whether the results really measure what the investigation intends to measure. For example, does changing temperature really affect enzyme action, or are other factors involved?
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should not drink any of the liquids.
- • Students should wash any splashes quickly from skin. Enzymes/pepsin are irritants and can cause allergic reactions or asthma symptoms.
- • Students should wash off any chemical splashes immediately.
- • Remind students to take care with the buffer and enzyme solutions.
- • Students should not be tempted to extend the range of pH higher than 8 because strong alkalis break down proteins and this will give confusing and false data. You could even leave out pH 8 and just use the range 1–7.
Lesson 15Transport of Substances in and out of Cells→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 16–18
📚 Specification Points
- 2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify substances that move by diffusion, osmosis and active transport
- describe the difference between diffusion and osmosis
- explain the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
🔑 Key Words
- active transport: the pumping of particles across a membrane, usually against the concentration gradient. This process requires energy.
- concentrated: a concentrated solution contains many solute molecules in a certain volume of solvent
- concentration gradient: the difference in the concentration of molecules between two regions in a solution. There will be an overall movement of particles down a concentration gradient, from higher concentration to lower concentration.
- diffusion: the random movement and spreading of particles. There is a net (overall) diffusion of particles from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration .
- dilute: a dilute solution contains few solute molecules in a certain volume of solvent
- flaccid: when a cell has lost internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm no longer pushes out against the cell membrane (and cell wall, in plants)
- osmosis: the overall movement of solvent molecules in a solution across a partially permeable membrane, from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one
- partially permeable: describes a membrane that allows certain small particles through it but not larger ones
- turgid: when a cell has high internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm pushes out against the cell membrane (and cell wall, in plants)
Lesson 16Factors Affecting Diffusion→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 16–17
📚 Specification Points
- 2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient
- 2.17 practical: investigate diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use a model to investigate how cells get the substances they need
- describe and calculate surface area to volume ratios
- describe the effect of surface area to volume ratio on the time needed for a cell to obtain all the substances it needs.
🔑 Key Words
- surface area to volume ratio (SA : V):a measure of the surface area available for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume. It is shown as a ratio or calculated by dividing surface area by volume. A small cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a large cell. So, a small cell has more surface area for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume.
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection
- • Students should be careful to not touch the cubes with their fingers and rinse any splashes immediately
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 16
📚 Specification Points
- 2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells
- 2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain how the rate of diffusion into and out of cells depends on:
- surface area
- distance
- concentration gradient
- temperature
- explain how cells and exchange surfaces increase their efficiency by:increasing their surface area to volume ratiohaving shapes (e.g. flattened to decrease diffusion distance)maintaining concentration gradients.
- increasing their surface area to volume ratio
- having shapes (e.g. flattened to decrease diffusion distance)
- maintaining concentration gradients.
🔑 Key Words
- proportional: a relationship between two variables in which doubling of one variable doubles the other. This is also called a directly proportional relationship.
- inversely proportional: a relationship between two variables in which doubling one variable halves the other
Lesson 18Core Practical – Investigating Osmosis→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 157
Lab Book: Pages 19–22
📚 Specification Points
- 2.17 practical: investigate diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the effects of osmosis (on potato tuber tissue)
- calculate percentage gain and loss of mass.
🔑 Key Words
- percentage change:( change in values ÷initial value) × 10⁰
- validity:whether something does what it is intended to do. For example, a valid investigation is one in which control variables are properly controlled to produce results that answer the original question. Valid results are produced by a valid investigation. Valid conclusions are drawn from the results of a valid investigation (and only the results from that investigation).
- plasmolysed: when a plant cell lacks water and its cytoplasm and cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should not taste or drink any of the solutions or taste the potato.
- • Remind students that If they are using a cork borer to not hold the potato in the palm of their hand. Students should hold the potato at its top and press it firmly down onto the tile. Then press the cork borer down through the potato into the tile.
- • Remind students to use a knife with great care. Students must hold a knife or scalpel above the bench at all times.
Lesson 19Ways That Molecules Move→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 16–18 and 156
📚 Specification Points
- 2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells
- 2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use a microscope to observe cells
- identify where and why diffusion, osmosis and active transport occur in cells.
🔑 Key Words
- isotonic:a solution that has the same solute concentration as another solution
- root hair cell: specialised plant cell found on the outsides of roots. It has a cell extension (that looks like a hair) giving it a large surface area to volume ratio for efficient absorption of water and mineral ions.
Lesson 20Obtaining Energy Currency→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 12–13
📚 Specification Points
- 2.34 understand how the process of respiration produces ATP in living organisms
- 2.35 know that ATP provides energy for cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the word equation for aerobic respiration
- describe how ATP is produced
- explain the role of ATP in a cell.
🔑 Key Words
- aerobic respiration: chemical reaction in the mitochondria of cells, in which glucose is broken down using oxygen. The reaction releases energy from glucose.
- ATP: substance from which energy can be released very quickly. Short for adenosine triphosphate.
- glucose: sugar (carbohydrate) used for respiration. Its breakdown releases energy for a cell.
- metabolism: all the chemical reactions in an organism
- rate of respiration: the speed at which the reactions of respiration take place in cells
Lesson 21Respiration in Living Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 12–15
📚 Specification Points
- 2.36 describe the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
- 2.37 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for aerobic respiration in living organisms
- 2.38 know the word equation for anaerobic respiration in plants and in animals
- 2.39 practical: investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide and heat from respiring seeds or other suitable living organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the word equations for aerobic and anaerobic respiration in plants and animals
- recall the symbol equation for aerobic respiration
- explain why respiration increases temperature
- compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
🔑 Key Words
- anaerobic respiration:the release of energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen
- lactate:substance produced during anaerobic respiration in animals
- lactic acid:used as another term for lactate in word equations for anaerobic respiration
- oxygen debt:the additional oxygen needed after exercise in which anaerobic respiration has supplied a lot of energy
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection when handling disinfectant solutions.
- • Students should take care when boiling the peas.
Lesson 22Core Practical – Investigating Respiration→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 14
Lab Book: Pages 34−37
📚 Specification Points
- 2.39 practical: investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide and heat from respiring seeds or other suitable living organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide from respiring seeds or small animals
- distinguish between qualitative and quantitative tests
- understand the concept of an experimental control.
🔑 Key Words
- control: an experimental control is a repeat of an experiment in which the independent variable is not applied. Comparisons are made between the results and the control.
- hydrogen carbonate indicator: an indicator solution that is used to detect carbon dioxide. It is red when the concentration of carbon dioxide is the same as the atmosphere. It is yellow at high carbon dioxide concentrations and purple at low carbon dioxide concentrations.
- limewater: a clear, colourless solution that turns milky in the presence of carbon dioxide
- qualitative: data that is in words, such as colours
- quantitative: data that is in numbers
- sodium hydroxide solution: a solution that absorbs carbon dioxide
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 282–284
📚 Specification Points
- 5.5 understand the role of yeast in the production of food including bread
- 5.6 practical: investigate the role of anaerobic respiration by yeast in different conditions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide from yeast during anaerobic respiration
- explain why yeast is used to make bread dough rise and to produce alcoholic drinks
- identify quantitative data as being discrete or continuous.
🔑 Key Words
- discrete: data in which values can only have certain numbers is discrete. For example, shoe sizes are discrete. Compare this with foot length.
- continuous: data in which any value is possible within a certain range is continuous. For example, foot length is continuous. Compare this with shoe sizes.
- fermentation: using anaerobic respiration in microorganisms to produce useful products. However, the word is sometimes used to mean any metabolic process in microorganisms.
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 24Using Bacteria to Produce Food on an Industrial Scale→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 284–286
📚 Specification Points
- 5.7 understand the role of bacteria (Lactobacillus) in the production of yoghurt
- 5.8 understand the use of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable conditions in the fermenter, including aseptic precautions, nutrients, optimum temperature and pH, oxygenation and agitation, for the growth of microorganisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why Lactobacillus is used to make yoghurt
- describe the use of an industrial fermenter
- explain the conditions needed in an industrial fermenter.
🔑 Key Words
- aseptic: free from contamination by microorganisms
- fermenter: a large container that is used for fermentation by microorganisms
- starter culture: microorganisms that are used to start the fermentation process
- sterile: free from contamination by microorganisms
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Aseptic precautions
- What is used to make aseptic conditions inside a fermenter?
- aseptic precautions
Lesson 27Our Survival Depends on the Sun→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 5–6 and 135–138
📚 Specification Points
- 2.18 understand the process of photosynthesis and its importance in the conversion of light energy to chemical energy
- 2.19 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for photosynthesis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the reactants and products for photosynthesis
- recall the word and symbol equations for photosynthesis
- describe the reaction of photosynthesis and its importance.
🔑 Key Words
- biomass: the total mass of organic matter in organisms
- chlorosis: yellowing of plant leaves as a result of mineral deficiency or infection
- stomata (singular, stoma): small openings on the lower surface of a leaf through which gases can diffuse
- xylem: tissue that is found in plant leaves, stems and roots and is responsible for the transport of water and mineral ions from the roots to other parts of the plant
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
Lesson 28Core Practical – Factors that Affect Photosynthesis→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 142–144 and 149–151
Lab Book: Pages 25–26
📚 Specification Points
- 2.20 understand how varying carbon dioxide concentration, light intensity and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis
- 2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, showing the evolution of oxygen from a water plant
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis
- analyse data from investigations into how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis
- explain how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis.
🔑 Key Words
- limiting factor: any factor that, when not available in sufficient amounts, slows down the rate of a reaction; the factor that is in shortest supply will be the main limiting factor
- independent variable: the condition you change
- dependent variable: the variable that depends on the condition you change
- control variable: a variable that does not change
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout the practical.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 29Core Practical – The Structure of a Leaf→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 136–140
Lab Book: Pages 29–30
📚 Specification Points
- 2.21 describe the structure of the leaf and explain how it is adapted for photosynthesis
- 2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, the production of starch and the requirements of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll
🎯 Learning Objectives
- label a diagram of a cross-section of a leaf
- describe the functions of the different tissues in a leaf
- explain how the structure of a leaf adapts it for its function of photosynthesis.
🔑 Key Words
- palisade mesophyll: column-shaped cells near the upper surface of the leaf, packed with chloroplasts for photosynthesis
- spongy mesophyll: loosely packed cells with air spaces to allow gas diffusion
- epidermis: outer layer of cells on the leaf surface
- cuticle: waxy waterproof layer on the leaf surface that reduces water loss
- stomata: small pores on the underside of a leaf that allow gas exchange
- vascular bundle: group of xylem and phloem vessels in a leaf
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care with slides and coverslips. They break easily and can be sharp.
- • There are no safety considerations to consider with setting up this practical.
Lesson 30Core Practical – Photosynthesis Investigations→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 136–138
Lab Book: Pages 27−30
📚 Specification Points
- 2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, the production of starch and the requirements of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll
🎯 Learning Objectives
- test variegated leaves for the presence of starch
- test leaves that have been left in the light and dark for the presence of starch
- test leaves that have been deprived of carbon dioxide for the presence of starch.
🔑 Key Words
- iodine test: a test for starch; iodine solution turns blue-black in the presence of starch
- destarching: leaving a plant in the dark so it uses up its starch reserves
- chlorophyll: green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis
- variegated: a leaf with areas of green and white, where white areas lack chlorophyll
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with ethanol.
- Take care with hot water.
- Remember that ethanol is flammable. Keep it away from flames.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Take care with staining solutions; they can stain skin and clothing. Wash off splashes immediately.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 31Increasing the Growth of Plants→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 145–147, 207–208, 217–218
📚 Specification Points
- 2.22 understand that plants require mineral ions for growth, and that magnesium ions are needed for chlorophyll and nitrate ions are needed for amino acids
- 4.17 understand the biological consequences of eutrophication caused by leached minerals from fertiliser
- 5.3 understand how the use of fertiliser can increase crop yield
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand how plants obtain the mineral ions, essential for growth, from the soil via roots
- explain the role of magnesium ions and nitrate ions in the growth of plants
- identify mineral ion deficiencies in plants showing symptoms of poor growth
- explain how fertilisers can increase crop yield
- describe how minerals leached from excess fertiliser and/or manure may cause eutrophication.
🔑 Key Words
- eutrophication: a process during which nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates enter water courses and promote an increase in algae that eventually leads to depletion of dissolved oxygen
- macronutrients: nutrients that are required in large amounts
- micronutrients: nutrients that are required in small amounts
Lesson 32Increasing Yield Using Glasshouses→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 147 and 206–207
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain crops
- 5.2 understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand that glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase yield for some crops
- identify how factors can be controlled in a polythene tunnel and glasshouse
- explain the effects of increasing carbon dioxide and temperature on the growth of plants in glasshouse
- understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses.
🔑 Key Words
- glasshouse: an enclosed structure made of glass or plastic used to control growing conditions
- polythene tunnel: a tunnel covered in clear polythene used to increase crop yield
- yield: the amount of useful product obtained from a crop
- photosynthesis rate: the speed at which a plant converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose using light energy
Lesson 37Diffusion in Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 16−18, 70−71 and 160
📚 Specification Points
- 2.51 understand why simple, unicellular organisms can rely on diffusion for movement of substances in and out of the cell
- 2.52 understand the need for a transport system in multicellular organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the definition of diffusion
- calculate surface area to volume ratios for small and large objects
- explain why some organisms need a transport system, whereas others do not.
🔑 Key Words
- blood vessel: any tube that carries blood in the circulatory system
- capillary: narrowest type of blood vessel in the circulatory system
- circulatory system: organ system in animals that uses blood to carry substances to and from cells in tissues
- diffusion: the random movement and spreading of particles; there is a net (overall) diffusion of particles from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration
- phloem tube: tube that carries sugars (and other substances for growth and repair) around a plant
- surface area to volume ratio (SA : V): a measure of the surface area available for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume. It is shown as a ratio or calculated by dividing surface area by volume. A small cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a large cell. So, a small cell has more surface area for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume
- vascular bundle: collection of both xylem vessels and phloem tubes in a plant
- xylem vessel: tube that carries water (and dissolved mineral ions) up through a plant
Lesson 39Transport of Water in Plants→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 158–161
📚 Specification Points
- 2.54 describe the role of xylem in transporting water and mineral ions from the roots to other parts of the plant
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall why plants need water and mineral ions
- describe the locations and role of xylem vessels in the transport of water and mineral ions
- describe the structural adaptations of xylem.
🔑 Key Words
- lignin: woody substance used to strengthen the walls of xylem vessels
- lumen: inside of a tube in biology
- phloem tube: tube that carries sugars (and other substances for growth and repair) around a plant
- vascular bundle: collection of xylem vessels and phloem tubes in a plant
- xylem vessel: tube that carries water (and dissolved mineral ions) up through a plant
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Be careful using concentrated food dyes, which can stain clothes and skin.
- • Be very careful with glass slides and coverslips. They break easily and can be sharp. Tell your teacher immediately if you break anything.
- • Students should use toothpicks rather than traditional mounted needles to lower the coverslips. This reduces the risk of injury from sharp needles.
- • Alternatives (e.g. if time is short), which do not require a worksheet: give students pre-prepared slides give students commercially purchased slides that show xylem vessels use a microscope with a video camera attachment to show xylem vessels on slides.
- • Ensure that cavity slides are used for this practical and not flat ones (the plant material is generally too thick for flat slides, and so the coverslips will break).
Lesson 43Translocation in Phloem Tissue→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 140–160
📚 Specification Points
- 2.53 describe the role of phloem in transporting sucrose and amino acids between the leaves and other parts of the plant
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall where sugars are made in a plant
- describe the structure of phloem and the adaptations for transport
- describe the role of phloem in transporting sucrose and amino acids.
🔑 Key Words
- phloem tissue: tissue composed of living tubes that transports organic substances such as sucrose and amino acids around the plant
- translocation: the process by which dissolved sucrose and other organic molecules are transported in phloem tissue
Lesson 44Tropic Responses of Plants to Stimuli→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 168–169
📚 Specification Points
- 2.83 understand that plants respond to stimuli
- 2.84 describe the geotropic and phototropic responses of roots and stems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms tropism, tropic response
- describe geotropic and phototropic responses
- explain how the tropic responses of shoots and roots help a plant’s survival.
🔑 Key Words
- clinostat:a platform that slowly turns and is used in experiments on plant tropisms
- geotropism:movement or growth of part of a plant in response to the force of gravity
- gravitropism:another term for geotropism
- phototropism:movement or growth of part of a plant in response to light
- stimulus:a change in the internal or external environment detected by an organism
- tropic response:a response in which part of an organism moves or grows towards or away from a stimulus
- tropism:another term for tropic response
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Check on the safety of any seeds chosen in terms of toxicity and any possible allergic reactions.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
Lesson 45The Role of Auxin in Tropic Responses→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 169–172
📚 Specification Points
- 2.85 understand the role of auxin in the phototropic response of stems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the phototropic response of plants
- describe the phototropic response as a hormonal response to the stimulus of light
- explain how auxin causes the phototropic response in stems.
🔑 Key Words
- auxin: a plant hormone or plant growth substance that controls cell elongation and plays a role in plant shoots' phototropic response
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Check on the safety of any seeds chosen in terms of toxicity and any possible allergic reactions.
- Take care with sharp instruments. Cut away from the body. Follow dissection safety guidelines.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
Lesson 49A Balanced Diet→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 52–57
📚 Specification Points
- 2.24 understand that a balanced diet should include appropriate proportions of carbohydrate, protein, lipid, vitamins, minerals, water and dietary fibre
- 2.25 identify the sources and describe the functions of carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils), vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and iron, water and dietary fibre as components of the diet
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the components of a balanced diet
- identify sources of the different components of a balanced diet
- describe the functions of the different components of a balanced diet.
🔑 Key Words
- adipose tissue: a tissue layer under the skin in which fats are stored
- antioxidant: a chemical, such as some vitamins, which stops a chemical reaction called oxidation occurring in cells, thus improving a person’s health
- balanced diet: a diet made up of all the required food groups, in sufficient amounts and the correct proportions to maintain health
- deficiency disease: a disease caused by a lack of certain foods; for example, lack of vitamin C
- egestion: the removal of undigested waste from the body as faeces
- proportion: parts of a substance in relation to the whole
Lesson 50Energy Requirements→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 52–57 and 59–60
📚 Specification Points
- 2.26 understand how energy requirements vary with activity levels, age and pregnancy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the need to include appropriate proportions of the different components of a balanced diet
- carry out calculations on energy in various foods and diets
- analyse and evaluate data on energy requirements for different people
- understand how diet plans vary according to nutritional requirements.
🔑 Key Words
- kwashiorkor: a disease caused by a deficiency of protein in the diet
- malnutrition: a condition when a person’s diet does not contain the correct amount of nutrients; it can refer to undernutrition (not receiving enough nutrients) and overnutrition (eating more nutrients than are needed)
Lesson 52The Human Alimentary Canal→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 62–66
📚 Specification Points
- 2.27 describe the structure and function of the human alimentary canal, including the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum and ileum), large intestine (colon and rectum) and pancreas
- 2.28 understand how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- label the components of the human digestive system
- describe the function of the components of the human alimentary canal
- explain how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis.
🔑 Key Words
- alimentary canal: the gut or digestive tract; consists of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus
- bolus: ball of food
- digestion: breaking down of large molecules to smaller, soluble molecules
- digestive system: organ system for digesting food; consists of the alimentary canal plus the salivary glands, liver and pancreas
- enzyme: biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions in the body
- gut: alimentary canal or digestive tract
- peristalsis: a series of wave-like muscle contractions that move substances through tubes in the body e.g. moving food along the alimentary canal
Lesson 53Core Practical – The Process of Digestion→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 64–65
Lab Book: Pages 15–16
📚 Specification Points
- 2.17 practical: investigate diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems
- 2.29 understand the role of digestive enzymes, including the digestion of starch to glucose by amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to amino acids by proteases and the digestion of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the role of enzymes in digestion
- explain the digestion reactions catalysed by amylase, maltase, proteases and lipases
- explain why starch, proteins and lipids must be digested.
🔑 Key Words
- catabolic: a type of metabolic reaction where large molecules are broken down to smaller molecules
- gastric: to do with the stomach
- metabolic: to do with metabolism; it involves all the chemical reactions in cells that keep living organisms alive
- monomer: smaller units from which polymer molecules are made
- polymer: large molecules made from many monomers joined together; examples include proteins, starch, glycogen, cellulose and nucleic acids
- product: molecules produced during a reaction
- reactant: molecules taking part in a reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not drink any of the solutions.
- • Take care with hot water in the water bath.
- • Remember that Benedict’s solution can be harmful to skin and eyes.
Lesson 54Absorption of Digested Food→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 65–66
📚 Specification Points
- 2.30 understand that bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder
- 2.31 understand the role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and emulsifying lipids
- 2.32 understand how the small intestine is adapted for absorption, including the structure of a villus
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder
- explain the role of bile in digestion
- describe the structure of the small intestine, including villi
- explain how the structure of the small intestine helps and increase the absorption of digested food.
🔑 Key Words
- bilirubin: made from old red blood and passed out of the body in faeces
- cholesterol: a type of lipid; essential for making nerve cells, bile salts and strengthening cell membranes; however, too much in the blood may increase the risk of heart disease
- chyme: an acid mixture of partly digested food, stomach acid and pepsin
- duct: a tube in the body
- emulsification: spreading small droplets of one liquid in another liquid
- hormone: a chemical messenger
- microvilli: small projections on the cell surface membrane of some cells, which increase the surface area
- villi: finger-like projections in the wall of the ileum (small intestine), which increase the surface area for absorption of digested food
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Urea is toxic and is
- Urea is toxic and is removed from the
Lesson 55The Process of Ventilation→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 39–42
📚 Specification Points
- 2.46 describe the structure of the thorax, including the ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and pleural membranes
- 2.47 understand the role of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm in ventilation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know the structures involved in ventilation (breathing)
- describe the functions of the different structures involved in ventilation
- explain the process of inhalation (breathing in) and exhalation (breathing out).
🔑 Key Words
- bronchi: part of the airways; they are fine branching tubes leading from the trachea into the lungs
- bronchioles: part of the airways; they are very fine branching tubes leading from the bronchi to the alveoli
- diaphragm: fibrous and muscular sheet of tissue that divides the thorax from the abdomen; its movements change the volume of the thorax and bring about ventilation
- intercostal muscles: muscles between the ribs; contraction of the muscles raises the ribcage up and out for inhalation
- thorax: chest
- trachea: airway; the tube carrying inspired air from the nose/mouth to the bronchi, each of which supplies a lung; the trachea also carries expired air from the lungs to the nose/mouth
Lesson 57The Effects of Smoking on the Body→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 45–49
📚 Specification Points
- 2.49 understand the biological consequences of smoking in relation to the lungs and the circulatory system, including coronary heart disease
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the effects of smoking on the lungs and circulatory system
- evaluate data on the incidence of coronary heart disease in smokers
- explain the effects of cardiovascular disease (CVD) on the body.
🔑 Key Words
- bronchitis: inflammation of the bronchi/airways
- carcinogenic: can cause cancer
- chronic: illness that is long-lasting and incurable but may be treated
- correlation: the relationship between two or more things
- emphysema: lung disease caused by loss of alveoli; leads to breathlessness and extreme fatigue
- epidemiologist: a person who studies the incidence, distribution and control of diseases
- incidence: occurrence; rate or frequency of something, e.g. number of people per 100000 population with a disease
- pulmonary: relating to the lungs
- tumour: abnormal growth of tissue/lump of tissue/cells, which leads to a swelling/lump
Lesson 59Components of Blood→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 78–80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.59 describe the composition of the blood: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
- 2.60 understand the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat energy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- list and identify blood components
- recall the functions of blood components
- explain the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat energy.
🔑 Key Words
- endocrine gland: gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood
- erythrocyte: another term for red blood cell
- haemoglobin: substance in red blood cells that can combine with oxygen
- hormone: a substance that can trigger changes in cells when they detect it
- leucocyte: another term for white blood cell
- lymphocyte: type of white blood cell that produces antibodies
- phagocyte: type of white blood cell that can engulf pathogens
- urea: a waste product formed from the breakdown of amino acids
Lesson 61The Immune System→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 79–80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.62 understand how the immune system responds to disease using white blood cells, illustrated by phagocytes ingesting pathogens and lymphocytes releasing antibodies specific to the pathogen
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the role of phagocytes and lymphocytes
- explain the role of phagocytes in engulfing pathogens
- explain the role of lymphocytes in the production of antibodies to a specific pathogen.
🔑 Key Words
- antibody:protein produced by lymphocytes in response to a particular antigen
- antigen: protein marker found on the surface of cells
- complementary: term used in biology to describe two things that fit together
- immune response: response by the immune system (such as a release of antibodies)
- immune system: body system that protects against diseases caused by pathogens
- phagocytosis:the process during which phagocytes ingest and destroy pathogens
Lesson 63The Structure and Function of the Heart→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 73–75
📚 Specification Points
- 2.65 describe the structure of the heart and how it functions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the structure of the heart and identify its major parts
- describe how the heart pumps and the flow of blood through it
- describe the differences in blood oxygenation on different sides of the heart and in the different blood vessels.
🔑 Key Words
- aorta: major artery leading out of the heart, carrying blood to most of the body
- artery: blood vessel that transports blood away from the heart
- atrium: upper chamber in the heart that receives blood from the veins
- bicuspid valve: valve between the left atrium and left ventricle
- cardiac muscle: specialised muscle tissue found in the walls of the heart
- circulatory system: system that moves blood through the body; it consists of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries and blood
- coronary artery: artery supplying the cardiac muscle with blood
- double circulatory system: circulatory system in which blood flows through the heart twice
- heartbeat: a complete cycle of the heart’s pumping, from when the atria are full of blood until the next time the atria are full
- heart rate: number of heartbeats in a unit of time, usually per minute (beats/min)
- heart valve: flap of tissue between chambers in the heart that stops blood flowing in the wrong direction when the heart muscle contracts
- pulmonary artery: blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
- pulmonary vein: blood vessel carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
- pulse: shockwave that travels through the walls of arteries leading from the heart
- semi-lunar valve: valve between a ventricle and an artery leaving the heart
- septum: muscular wall that separates the heart into two halves and prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
- tricuspid valve: valve between the right atrium and right ventricle
- vein: blood vessel that transports blood towards the heart
- vena cava: major vein leading to the heart, carrying blood back from most of the body (and divided into two parts)
- ventricle: lower chamber in the heart that pumps blood out into the arteries
Lesson 64Factors Affecting the Heart→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–76
📚 Specification Points
- 2.66 explain how the heart rate changes during exercise and under the influence of adrenaline
- 2.67 understand how factors may increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify factors that can change heart rate
- explain why heart rate increases during exercise and in response to adrenaline
- describe coronary heart disease
- explain why different factors increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease.
🔑 Key Words
- adrenal gland: endocrine gland found on top of each kidney, which releases adrenaline
- adrenaline: hormone released into the blood from the adrenal glands in response to fright or shock (also called epinephrine)
- atherosclerosis: the deposition of fatty substances inside blood vessels
- endocrine gland: organ that releases a hormone into the blood (e.g. adrenal gland)
- hormone: a substance that can trigger changes in certain cells when they detect it
- impulse: electrical signal carried by nerve cells
- medulla: part of the brain that controls heart rate
- pacemaker: something that generates electrical impulses to cause a heartbeat
- target cell: cell that is affected by a hormone
Lesson 65The Structure and Function of Blood Vessels→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 76–77
📚 Specification Points
- 2.68 understand how the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries relate to their function
- 2.69 understand the general structure of the circulation system, including the blood vessels to and from the heart and lungs, liver and kidneys
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the functions of arteries, veins and capillaries
- explain how the structures of arteries, veins and capillaries are adapted for their functions
- recall the names and positions of major blood vessels in the circulatory system.
🔑 Key Words
- hepatic artery: takes blood from the aorta to the liver
- hepatic portal vein: carries blood from the intestines to the liver
- hepatic vein: takes blood from the liver to the vena cava
- lumen: the space in a tube in which a fluid flows
- mesenteric artery: carries blood from the aorta to the intestines
- renal artery: carries blood from the aorta to the kidneys
- renal vein: carries blood from the kidneys to the vena cava
- tissue fluid: a fluid that forms from blood plasma, and which surrounds all cells
Lesson 67Excretory Products in Plants and Animals→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 104–106, 159, 161
📚 Specification Points
- 2.70 understand the origin of carbon dioxide and oxygen as waste products of metabolism and their loss from the stomata of a leaf
- 2.71 know the excretory products of the lungs, kidneys and skin (organs of excretion)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the waste products made by plants and animals
- describe the systems that plants and animals use for excretion
- explain why excretion is an essential life process.
🔑 Key Words
- blood plasma: liquid part of the blood; blood cells are suspended in it; it also contains and carries dissolved nutrients, carbon dioxide, waste products and hormones, and blood proteins that cause clotting when a blood vessel is damaged
- by-product: a secondary product made during a reaction
- deamination: chemical reaction that removes the amino group (NH2) from amino acids
- tissue fluid: a fluid that forms from blood plasma, and which surrounds all cells
- urea: nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) chemical, formula = (NH2)2CO
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with indicator solution; report any spillages.
- Handle glassware carefully to avoid breakages.
- Handle the snails carefully as they are alive.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
- ammonia, which is very alkaline and toxic.
- Ammonia is changed, in the liver, to urea. This is less toxic but still has to
- Three from: More carbon dioxide breathed out (1) because your muscle cells are carrying out more aerobic respiration (1) to release more energy/make more ATP for your leg muscles to contract (1). Carbon dioxide is the by-product/waste product from respiration (1). It is acidic and toxic and has to be removed (1).
- Two from: Less carbon dioxide breathed out (1) because your muscles are relaxed and are carrying out less aerobic respiration (1) so less of the toxic and acidic by-product, carbon dioxide, is produced (1).
Lesson 73What is Homeostasis and Why is it Important?→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 99, 104–105, 111–113
📚 Specification Points
- 2.80 understand how organisms are able to respond to changes in their environment
- 2.81 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment, and that body water content and body temperature are both examples of homeostasis
- 2.82 understand that a co-ordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effector
- 2.86 describe how nervous and hormonal communication control responses and understand the differences between the two systems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify ways organisms can respond to their environment
- explain why homeostasis is important for maintaining a constant internal environment
- explain that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effector.
🔑 Key Words
- CNS: central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord)
- ectotherm: animal whose body temperature varies with that of the environment; can adjust their temperature by seeking sunlight or shade
- endotherm: animal whose body temperature can be maintained by its metabolism; can generate heat from within
- extremities: fingers and toes, ear tips
- neurone: nerve cell
- poikilotherm: organism with variable body temperature
- synapse: gap between neurones
Lesson 74The Nervous System→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 84–87
📚 Specification Points
- 2.87 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and is linked to sense organs by nerves
- 2.88 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid responses
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
- describe a reflex arc as a rapid response that protects the body
- explain how the stimulation of a receptor leads to a rapid response in the body.
🔑 Key Words
- peripheral: around the edge – in the nervous system it means the nerves connecting sense organs and effectors to the CNS
- reflex action: involuntary action in response to a stimulus
- response: a reaction to something
Lesson 75The Role of a Synapse→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 93–97
📚 Specification Points
- 2.89 understand the role of neurotransmitters at synapses
- 2.90 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe synapses as gaps between neurones
- explain the role of neurotransmitters at a synapse
- describe the structure of a reflex arc.
🔑 Key Words
- cleft: gap
- exocytosis: active process that allows molecules to pass out of a cell; a vesicle containing the molecules fuses with the cell surface membrane
- neurotransmitter: chemical messenger used by the nervous system
- nm: nanometre: 1000 nm = 1 micrometre; 1 million nm = 1 mm
- postsynaptic: after the synapse
- presynaptic: before the synapse
- vesicle: tiny sac of cell membrane
Lesson 76The Structure of the Eye→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 87–90, 95 and 96
📚 Specification Points
- 2.91 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the eye as a receptor
- label the structures of the eye
- describe the function of the structures in the eye.
🔑 Key Words
- aqueous humour: a fluid found between the cornea and the lens
- conjunctiva: a thin, transparent layer of cells that lines the eyelids and covers the cornea
- photoreceptor: sense receptor that is sensitive to light, of which there are two types: rods and cones
- vitreous humour: a jelly-like substance found behind the lens, which maintains the shape of the eyeball
Lesson 78Thermoregulation→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 112–115
📚 Specification Points
- 2.93 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the mechanisms used for thermoregulation
- describe how sweating and vasodilation are used to reduce body temperature
- describe how vasoconstriction is used to increase body temperature.
🔑 Key Words
- latent heat of vaporisation: heat energy that is required for evaporation
- thermoregulation: a process that takes place to regulate body temperature
- vasoconstriction: narrowing of blood vessels in the skin to reduce heat loss
- vasodilation: widening of blood vessels in the skin to increase heat loss
Lesson 79Chemical Coordination→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 98–103
📚 Specification Points
- 2.94 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know the main endocrine glands of the human body and the hormones they produce
- describe the function of adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen
- explain the source, role and effects of ADH, FSH and LH.
🔑 Key Words
- diabetes (mellitus): a condition that occurs when a person does not secrete sufficient insulin to lower their blood glucose levels, or their cells do not respond to insulin to lower blood glucose levels; also called sugar diabetes
Lesson 81Reproduction→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 118–121 and 126–128
📚 Specification Points
- 3.1 understand the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
- 3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
- describe the process of fertilisation
- explain the stages involved in the production of an embryo.
🔑 Key Words
- diploid: a cell that has two sets of chromosomes; in humans the diploid number is 46
- embryo: a ball of cells that has formed after the zygote starts to divide
- fertilisation: fusion of a male and a female gamete
- fetus: an unborn offspring that develops from an embryo (in humans, from 9 weeks onwards)
- gametes: specialised sex cells that fuse during fertilisation in sexual reproduction
- haploid: a cell that has one set of chromosomes; in humans the haploid number is 23
- meiosis: a type of cell division which gives rise to haploid gametes
- mitosis: a type of cell division after which genetically identical cells are produced
- variation: differences in genetic makeup and/or features in an organism
- zygote: the single diploid cell that is formed after fertilisation
Lesson 82Reproduction in Plants→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 174–181
📚 Specification Points
- 3.3 describe the structures of an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower and explain how each is adapted for pollination
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that pollination is part of sexual reproduction
- describe the structures and functions for insect- and wind-pollinated flowers
- explain how pollination occurs for insect- or wind-pollinated flowers.
🔑 Key Words
- pollination: the process used to transfer pollen from the anthers (of one flower) to the stigma (of another flower or of the same flower)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with sharp instruments. Cut away from the body. Follow dissection safety guidelines.
Lesson 84Core Practical – Investigating Seed Germination→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 178–179
Lab Book: Pages 53–57
📚 Specification Points
- 3.5 practical: investigate the conditions needed for seed germination
- 3.6 understand how germinating seeds utilise food reserves until the seedling can carryout photosynthesis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the conditions needed for seed germination
- explain how the different factors that affect seed germination can be investigated
- evaluate methods and interpret data on the germination of seeds.
🔑 Key Words
- hypothesis: a proposed explanation that is used as a starting point for an investigation; it is used to predict the outcome of an investigation
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Take care with glassware.
- • Take care with scissors.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Take care with glassware.
- • Take care with scissors.
- • Tke care with the alkaline pyrogallol.
Lesson 85The Human Reproductive System→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 118–123 and 126
📚 Specification Points
- 3.8 understand how the structure of the male and female reproductive systems are adapted for their functions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- outline the process of human reproduction
- explain how the structures of the male reproductive system are adapted to their function
- explain how structures of the female reproductive system are adapted to their function.
🔑 Key Words
- ovary: the female organ that produces egg cells (ova)
- testis: the male organ that produces sperm cells
- oviduct: the tube that carries the egg from the ovary to the uterus; also called the fallopian tube
- uterus: the organ where a fertilised egg implants and develops during pregnancy
- sperm: the male sex cell
- fertilisation: the fusion of a male and female gamete to form a zygote
Lesson 86The Menstrual Cycle→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 123–129
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the stages of the menstrual cycle
- explain the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle
- explain the roles of FSH and LH in the menstrual cycle.
🔑 Key Words
- corpus luteum: a temporary endocrine structure that develops in an ovary from the follicle after it has released the ovum; it makes a lot of progesterone and some oestrogen; it breaks down if the ovum is not fertilised
- endometrium: the inner lining of the uterus that is shed during menstruation
- follicle: a structure in the ovary in which the ovum develops
- menstrual cycle: a series of events that occur in a female’s body to prepare the body for a possible pregnancy
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 118–126
📚 Specification Points
- 3.11 describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the developing embryo
- 3.12 understand how the developing embryo is protected by amniotic fluid
- 3.13 understand the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary sexual characteristics
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the roles of the placenta and the amnion in pregnancy
- describe the secondary sexual characteristics for males and females
- explain the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
🔑 Key Words
- amnion: a membrane that surrounds a fetus and secretes amniotic fluid
- blastocyst: a hollow ball of cells developed from the morula by further mitotic cell divisions; some of the cells have differentiated; there is a space called the blastocoel in the centre and the outer layers of cells are called the trophoblast
- chorion: the outermost membrane of a fetus that assists with the formation of the placenta
- morula: a ball of 16 cells, developed from mitotic divisions of the zygote, that forms during the early development of an embryo
- placenta: a temporary organ at the uterus wall that allows exchange of substances between mother and fetus during pregnancy
- secondary sexual characteristics: sexual features that develop in males and females at puberty
Lesson 88DNA and RNA→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 227–230
📚 Specification Points
- 3.14 understand that the genome is the entire DNA of an organism and that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA that codes for a specific protein
- 3.15 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms genome, gene and chromosome
- describe the molecular structure of DNA
- compare the molecular structures of DNA and RNA.
🔑 Key Words
- gene: a length of DNA that codes for one (or more) specific proteins
- genome: the total genetic content of an individual
- helix: (plural – helices) coil
- nucleotide: monomer of nucleic acid; consists of a sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate
Lesson 90Mitosis→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 240–242, 246, 248 and 278
📚 Specification Points
- 3.28 understand how division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells that contain identical sets of chromosomes
- 3.29 understand that mitosis occurs during growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproduction
- 3.32 know that in human cells the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the haploid number is 23
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process and outcome of mitosis
- know the diploid and haploid number for human cells
- explain the roles of mitosis in growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproduction.
🔑 Key Words
- asexually: without sex; without gametes
- clone: genetically identical
- homologous (chromosomes): a pair of chromosomes that are matched in size and carry the same genes at the same loci (positions)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- socks, but not paired up, just thrown haphazardly into the drawer.
Lesson 91Meiosis→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 242–248, 256–257
📚 Specification Points
- 3.26 understand how the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a male
- 3.27 describe the determination of the sex of offspring at fertilisation, using a genetic diagram
- 3.30 understand how division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in the formation of genetically different haploid gametes
- 3.31 understand how random fertilisation produces genetic variation of offspring
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process and outcome for meiosis
- explain how fertilisation leads to genetic variation in offspring
- explain how the sex of offspring is determined at fertilisation.
🔑 Key Words
- allele: version of a gene
- autosomes: chromosomes not involved in determining the sex of an individual
- chromatin: the DNA and associated proteins that are in eukaryotic nuclei and that condense into chromosomes just before mitosis or meiosis
- gonads: organs where sex cells are made; ovaries and testes in animals; ovaries and anthers in flowering plants
Lesson 92Monohybrid Inheritance→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 233–237 and 249–258
📚 Specification Points
- 3.19 understand how genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics
- 3.20 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, and genotype
- 3.23 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
- 3.24 understand how to interpret family pedigrees
- 3.25 predict probabilities and outcomes from monohybrid crosses
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms allele, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype and genotype
- use genetic diagrams to show monohybrid inheritance
- predict the probabilities and outcomes from monohybrid crosses
- interpret pedigree diagrams.
🔑 Key Words
- dominant: the allele in a heterozygous person, that is expressed and can be seen in the phenotype – even if there is also a recessive allele of that gene present
- counsellor: a person trained to give guidance
- genotype: type of alleles present for a particular trait
- heterozygous: having different alleles at a particular gene locus
- homozygous: having two identical alleles at a particular gene locus
- mutation: change to the DNA / genetic material
- pedigree diagram: genetic family tree that shows occurrence of phenotypes, for a particular gene, in three generations
- phenotype: observable characteristic(s)
- recessive: allele in a heterozygote that is not seen in the phenotype if a dominant allele is also present
Lesson 93Codominance and Polygenic Inheritance→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 254–257
📚 Specification Points
- 3.22 understand that most phenotypic features are the result of polygenic inheritance rather than single genes
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term codominance
- describe how some phenotypic features are the result of polygenic inheritance rather than single genes.
🔑 Key Words
- codominant: jointly dominant – both alleles contribute to the phenotype
Lesson 95Manipulating Organisms→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 268–272, 274–276
📚 Specification Points
- 5.10 understand how selective breeding can develop plants with desired characteristics
- 5.11 understand how selective breeding can develop animals with desired characteristics
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the process of selective breeding in plants and animals
- describe the process of micropropagation in plants
- explain the commercial benefits of micropropagation in plants.
🔑 Key Words
- gene pool: all the genes and alleles within a population
- meristem: region of plant tissue (root tips and shoot tips and cambium) consisting of stem cells that are undifferentiated and can divide
- micropropagation: tissue culture; a method used to develop many genetically identical plants from a parent plant by using explants
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Be careful when using the knife. A knife or scalpel must be on the bench or held above the bench at all times. Always cut away from your body.
Lesson 97The Effect of Mutations on Variation→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 233–234 and 238–239
📚 Specification Points
- 3.33 understand that variation within a species can be genetic, environmental or a combination of both
- 3.34 understand that mutation is a rare, random change in genetic material that may be inherited
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the causes of variation within a species
- describe the effects of a change in DNA sequence on the structure of proteins
- explain the effect of genetic mutation on the phenotype.
🔑 Key Words
- mutagen: something that causes a mutation
Lesson 98Evolution→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 261–267
📚 Specification Points
- 3.38 explain Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
- 3.39 understand how resistance to antibiotics can arise and increase in bacterial populations, by natural selection; and appreciate how such an increase can lead to infections being difficult to control
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the features that increase the incidence of mutations
- explain Darwin’s theory of natural selection as a mechanism for evolution
- explain how natural selection increases resistance to antibiotics in bacterial populations, why this is an example of evolution, and why it is a problem.
🔑 Key Words
- evolution: the gradual change in the inherited characteristics of a population over many generations
- natural selection: the process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
- mutation: a random change in a gene or chromosome
- adaptation: a feature that helps an organism survive in its environment
- variation: differences between individuals of the same species
Lesson 99Genetic Engineering→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 289–297
📚 Specification Points
- 5.12 understand how restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes are used to join pieces of DNA together
- 5.13 understand how plasmids and viruses can act as vectors, which take up pieces of DNA, and then insert this recombinant DNA into other cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the function of restriction enzymes, ligase enzymes, plasmids and viruses in genetic engineering
- explain how DNA can be inserted into a plasmid
- explain the processes that can be used to insert recombinant DNA into other cells.
🔑 Key Words
- ligase: an enzyme that catalyses the joining together of lengths of DNA
- recognition site: sequence of nucleotide bases in a length of DNA that are acted on by the restriction enzyme
- restriction enzyme: enzyme that cuts DNA; its active site fits the shape of a specific recognition site
- vector: carrier
Lesson 100Genetically Modified Organisms→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 289–297 and 284–288, 301–302
📚 Specification Points
- 5.14 understand how a large amount of insulin can be manufactured from genetically modified bacteria that are grown in a fermenter
- 5.15 understand how genetically modified plants can be used to improve food production
- 5.16 understand that the term transgenic means the transfer of genetic material from one species to a different species
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how bacteria can be genetically modified to produce human insulin
- describe the process and benefits of growing genetically modified bacteria in a fermenter
- describe how viruses can be used to produce genetically modified plants
- explain how genetically modified plants can be used to improve food production.
🔑 Key Words
- genetically modified organism (GMO): an organism whose DNA has been altered by genetic engineering
- transgenic: describing an organism that contains genetic material from another species
- fermenter: a large vessel used to grow microorganisms on an industrial scale
- genetic engineering: the process of modifying an organism's DNA by adding genes from another organism
Lesson 103Ecosystems and Factors Affecting Them→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 187–193
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 understand the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem
- 4.5 understand how abiotic and biotic factors affect the population size and distribution of organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem
- apply the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem to examples
- explain how biotic and abiotic factors affect population size and the distribution of organisms.
🔑 Key Words
- abiotic factor: variable caused by non-living things that can change an ecosystem (e.g. light intensity, temperature, pH)
- bias: when data has been influenced by a person
- biotic factor: variable caused by living things that can change an ecosystem (e.g. predation, competition, food availability, disease)
- consumer: organism that eats other organisms for food
- decomposer: fungus or microorganism that feeds on and breaks down animal wastes and / or dead organisms
- ecosystem: all the living organisms and non-living factors that interact with one another in an area
- estimate: approximate value
- habitat: place in which an organism lives (e.g. desert, seashore)
- producer: organism that produces its own food (e.g. plants, algae)
- quadrat: square frame of known area, such as 1 m² , that is placed on the ground to get a sample of the organisms living in an area
- sample: small part of something; if you sample something, you take a small part of it – you use your results from the sample to estimate what the rest of the thing is like
Lesson 104Core Practical – Investigating Population Size→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 189–190
Lab Book: Pages 61–64
📚 Specification Points
- 4.2 practical: investigate the population size of an organism in two different areas using quadrats
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how to use a quadrat to sample a habitat
- use sample data to estimate population size
- explain how to collect samples so that accurate population estimates can be calculated.
🔑 Key Words
- bias: when data has been influenced by a person
- quadrat: square frame of known area, such as 1 m², that is placed on the ground to get a sample of the organisms living in that area
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care in the field. Be aware of uneven ground, stinging plants, and wildlife. Wash hands after fieldwork.
Lesson 106Feeding Relationships→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 194−196
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 understand the names given to different trophic levels, including producers, primary, secondary and tertiary consumers and decomposers
- 4.7 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transfer
- 4.8 understand the transfer of substances and energy along a food chain
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the different trophic levels of feeding relationships in an ecosystem
- construct and interpret food chains and food webs
- explain the concepts of a pyramid of numbers and a pyramid of biomass.
🔑 Key Words
- biomass: total mass of a living thing or group of living things (usually ‘dry mass’, which is the mass without water)
- carnivore: animal that eats other animals
- consumer: organism that eats other organisms for food
- decomposer: fungus, microorganism or invertebrate that feeds on and breaks down animal wastes and / or dead organisms
- food chain: way to represent the energy in food that is passed from one organism to another
- food web: way to show how several food chains are interconnected in an ecosystem
- herbivore: animal that eats plants
- omnivore: animal that eats both plants and animals
- predator: organism that catches and eats other animals for food
- prey: animal that is food for a predator
- primary consumer: the first consumer in a food chain; herbivores are primary consumers
- producer: organism that produces its own food (e.g. plants, algae)
- pyramid of biomass: diagram showing trophic levels in a food chain stacked on top of each other, with the lengths of each bar representing biomass
- pyramid of numbers: diagram showing trophic levels in a food chain stacked on top of each other, with the lengths of each bar representing the total number of individuals
- secondary consumer: second consumer in a food chain
- tertiary consumer: third consumer in a food chain
- top carnivore: last animal in a food chain, with no predators; also called an apex predator
- trophic level: position of an organism in food chains in an ecosystem
Lesson 107Energy Transfer→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 208–210
📚 Specification Points
- 4.7 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids ofbiomass and pyramids of energy transfer
- 4.8 understand the transfer of substances and energy along a food chain
- 4.9 understand why only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next
- 5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control with crop plants
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use pyramids of energy transfer to model the transfer of energy along a food chain
- explain how some energy is transferred to the next trophic level, and why most energy is not transferred
- explain the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control on crop plants.
🔑 Key Words
- bioaccumulation: build-up of persistent substances in the bodies of organisms
- biological control: controlling pests using natural consumers of pest organisms
- biomagnification: increase in the concentration of persistent substances along a food chain
- persistent pesticide: artificial substance used to kill pests that does not break down in the environment and so lasts for a very long time
- pest: organism that damages things that humans want to use (e.g. crops)
- pesticide resistance: when a pest is no longer affected by a pesticide (due to natural selection)
- pesticide: substance used for controlling or killing pests
- pyramid of energy transfer: diagram showing trophic levels in a food chain stacked on top of each other, with the length of each bar representing energy
- yield: the amount of useful product obtained from an organism
Lesson 109The Carbon Cycle→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 197–198 and 215–216
📚 Specification Points
- 4.10 describe the stages in the carbon cycle, including respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition and combustion
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how carbon is recycled in the environment, through the carbon cycle
- describe the effects of respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition and combustion on the balance of gases in the atmosphere
- explain a range of effects caused by deforestation: flooding, erosion, leaching, local temperature increase.
🔑 Key Words
- assimilation: the processes by which organisms get nutrients and make them into new substances in their bodies
- biodiversity: how varied the organisms in an area are; the most biodiverse areas contain a lot of different species and many individuals of each species
- carbon cycle: the series of processes by which carbon atoms are recycled in the environment
- combustion: a chemical reaction that takes place between oxygen and certain fuels; carbon dioxide and water are released, and energy is released
- decomposition: breaking down large, complex organic molecules into simpler ones
- deforestation: clearing of forests (e.g. for farming, housing)
- erosion: when soil or rock particles are carried away by water, glaciers or the wind
- evapotranspiration: water vapour entering the atmosphere by transpiration from plants and evaporation from the soil
- fossil fuel: fuel made from prehistoric organisms by certain fossilisation processes
- fossilisation: a process that preserves parts of prehistoric organisms or traces of them
- leaching: a process in which soluble mineral ions are dissolved and washed out of soil by flowing water
- organic compound: a compound that contains carbon–carbon and / or carbon–hydrogen bonds
- transpiration: evaporation of water from the surface of a plant
Lesson 111Eutrophication→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 216–217
📚 Specification Points
- 4.16 understand the biological consequences of pollution of water by sewage
- 4.17 understand the biological consequences of eutrophication caused by leached minerals from fertiliser
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how eutrophication occurs
- explain the effects of eutrophication on an ecosystem
- explain the effects of untreated sewage on an ecosystem.
🔑 Key Words
- algal bloom: an increase in the growth of algae because of increased levels of nutrients in water
- anoxic: the state of water when there is little or no dissolved oxygen in it
- eutrophication: high concentrations of nutrients in an aquatic habitat
- indicator species: an organism that provides information about a certain environmental condition (e.g. by its presence or absence)
- sewage: wastewater that contains wastes from homes, offices and factories, including human urine and faeces
Lesson 112Air Quality→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 211–215
📚 Specification Points
- 4.12 understand the biological consequences of pollution of air by sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide
- 4.13 understand that water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and CFCs are greenhouse gases
- 4.14 understand how human activities contribute to greenhouse gases
- 4.15 understand how an increase in greenhouse gases results in an enhanced greenhouse effect, and that this may lead to global warming and its consequences
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the effects of carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide on organisms
- describe how human activities increase the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
- explain the effect of greenhouse gases on the Earth.
🔑 Key Words
- acid rain: rain with a pH less than 5.5, containing sulfuric and nitric acids
- climate change: changes to global weather patterns due to global warming
- global warming: increase in the Earth’s average temperature caused by increased amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
- greenhouse effect: when gases in the air absorb energy transferred by infrared waves from the Earth, and so keep ‘heat’ in the atmosphere
- greenhouse gas: a gas that helps to trap ‘heat’ in the atmosphere; examples include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide
- pollutant: something (e.g. a substance) that can harm an ecosystem
- pollution: when high levels of a pollutant cause harm
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care when making the small holes in the bottles.
- • Mop up any spills immediately.
⚗️ Chemistry
Lesson 1States of Matter→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 3–6
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 understand the three states of matter in terms of the arrangement, movement, and energy of the particles
- 1.2 understand the interconversions between the three states of matter in terms of: • the names of the interconversions • how they are achieved • the changes in arrangement, movement, and energy of the particles
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the arrangement, movement, and energy of the particles in the three states of matter
- link the properties of the three states of matter to the particle arrangements
- explain how changes of state are achieved.
🔑 Key Words
- boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid boils and changes to a gas
- condensing: the change of state from a gas to a liquid
- density: the mass per unit volume; it represents how tightly packed the particles are in a fixed volume
- deposition: the change of state from a gas directly to a solid
- evaporation: the change of state from a liquid to a gas that occurs below the boiling point and only at the surface of a liquid
- freezing: the change of state from a liquid to a solid
- melting point: the temperature at which a solid melts and changes to a liquid
- particle model: a way of describing the arrangement and movement of particles
- physical property: any characteristic of a substance that can be determined without changing the substance’s chemical identity
- state of matter: the condition in which matter exists (solid, liquid or gas)
- sublimation: the change of state from a solid directly to a gas
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • Care should be taken with hot apparatus.
Lesson 2Diffusion and Solutions→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 6–9
📚 Specification Points
- 1.3 understand how the results of experiments involving the dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion of gases can be explained
- 1.4 know what is meant by the terms: • solvent • solute • solution • saturated solution
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms diffusion, solvent, solute, solution and saturated
- describe and use the example of potassium manganate (VII) changing colour when it is diluted
- explain the results of experiments involving the dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion of gases
- describe how a solution is made
- define the term solubility in the units g per 10⁰ g of solvent.
🔑 Key Words
- diffusion: the spreading out of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- solvent: the liquid in which a solute dissolves to form a solution
- solute: the substance that dissolves in a solvent
- solution: a mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
- saturated solution: a solution in which no more solute can dissolve at that temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
Lesson 4Elements, Compounds and Mixtures→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 14–16 and 22
📚 Specification Points
- 1.8 understand how to classify a substance as an element, compound, or mixture
- 1.9 understand that a pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling point, but that a mixture may melt or boil over a range of temperatures
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms element, compound, and mixture
- identify elements, compounds, and mixtures from particle diagrams
- identify elements, compounds, and mixtures from names/formulae
- describe the difference in melting and boiling points between pure substances and mixtures.
🔑 Key Words
- atom: the smallest piece of an element that can still be recognised as that element
- atomic number: the number of protons in an atom
- compound: a substance that forms when two or more elements chemically combine; the elements cannot be separated by physical means
- element: a substance that cannot be split into anything simpler by chemical means; all atoms in an element have the same atomic number
- mixture: two or more substances that are not chemically combined and that can be separated by physical means
- particle: a small object; in chemistry, particle can be used to refer to atoms, molecules, ions, or the subatomic particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons
- pure: a single substance with a fixed composition that does not have anything else mixed with it
Lesson 5Separating Mixtures→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 14–17
📚 Specification Points
- 1.8 understand how to classify a substance as an element, compound, or mixture
- 1.10 describe these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures: • filtration • crystallisation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why mixtures are easy to separate, whereas compounds are not
- describe the processes of filtration and crystallisation
- describe how a mixture of salt and sand may be separated.
🔑 Key Words
- crystallisation: a process in which a solute (soluble solid) is obtained from a solvent
- filtrate: the liquid that passes through the filter paper during filtration
- filtration: a process to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid
- residue: the substance left on the filter paper after filtration
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye-protection should be worn during this demonstration and heatproof gloves worn when handing hot equipment.
- • Ensure that you are entirely satisfied with student plans before they carry them out. An additional risk assessment is advised as groups will be using various pieces of equipment but at different times. For example, you might decide on having one part of the lab where heating happens, and filtering in another area, or you might insist on precautions for heating throughout (i.e., wearing eye protection, long hair tied back) regardless of the low risk of filtering a sand–salt solution.
- • Depending on the ability and behaviour of the group, you will need to decide whether this increases the risk of the practical beyond a level you feel comfortable with. It is possible for some groups to start heating directly and others to use a water bath.
- • Students should take care when heating to dryness because it may cause spitting – eye protection should be worn.
- • Students should also be careful with hot objects. They should be reminded to allow equipment to cool before handling it or use heatproof gloves when moving the equipment.
Lesson 6Separating Techniques – Distillation→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 18–19
📚 Specification Points
- 1.10 describe these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures: • simple distillation • fractional distillation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process of simple distillation
- describe the process of fractional distillation
- evaluate the use of simple and fractional distillation as separating techniques.
🔑 Key Words
- fractional distillation: a process to separate two liquids with different boiling points, for example ethanol and water or the components of crude oil
- fractionating column: a piece of equipment used for separating vapours in fractional distillation
- Liebig condenser: a piece of glassware which has cold water running through the outside sleeve, which causes the vapour within the condenser to turn back into a liquid
- simple distillation: a process used to separate two liquids of different boiling points, or to separate the solvent and solid solute from a solution
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Be mindful of the risk of scalding from hot steam. You may decide to use anti-bumping granules to help the liquid boil more smoothly and reduce the risk of boiling over. Remind students not to handle hot equipment – they should allow any apparatus that was used in heating to cool before putting it away.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Remind students not to handle hot equipment – they should allow any apparatus that was used in heating to cool before putting it away.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Hot water and glassware can cause burns.
- • Ethanol is flammable; make sure there are no naked flames in the laboratory.
Lesson 7Chromatography→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 19–21
Lab Book: Pages 5–7
📚 Specification Points
- 1.10 describe this experimental technique for the separation of mixtures: paper chromatography
- 1.11 understand how a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a mixture
- 1.12 understand how to use the calculation of Rf values to identify the components of a mixture
- 1.13 practical: investigate paper chromatography using inks/food colourings
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the technique of chromatography
- explain that a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a mixture
- calculateRfvalues
- useRfvalues to identify the components of a mixture.
🔑 Key Words
- chromatogram: the absorbent paper from paper chromatography showing the separation of different coloured substances
- paper chromatography: a process used to separate a mixture of coloured substances using absorbent paper
- retardation factor (Rf): (sometimes called the retention factor) calculated as the distance moved by a spot of dye (from the pencil line) divided by the distance moved by the solvent front (from the pencil line) on a chromatogram
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The solvent suggested for biro ink is flammable and harmful – ensure there are no naked flames in the lab.
- • There are no safety considerations for this practical.
Lesson 8Atomic Structure→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 24–26
📚 Specification Points
- 1.14 know what is meant by the terms: atom and molecule
- 1.15 know the structure of an atom in terms of the positions, relative masses, and relative charges of sub-atomic particles
- 1.16 know what is meant by the terms atomic number, mass number, and relative atomic mass (Ar)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms atom and molecule
- describe the structure of an atom
- know the relative mass and charge of each sub-atomic particle
- state what the terms atomic number and mass number mean
- use atomic number and mass number to calculate the number of each sub-atomic particle.
🔑 Key Words
- atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
- electron: a sub-atomic particle found in shells (energy levels) outside the nucleus of an atom; it has a relative mass of 1/1836 and a relative charge of –1; for a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons and therefore is the same as the atomic number
- mass number: the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
- molecule: two or more atoms covalently bonded together; molecules contain a certain fixed number of atoms
- neutron: a sub-atomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it has a relative mass of 1 and no charge; the number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between the mass number and the atomic number
- nucleon number: an alternative name for the mass number
- proton: a sub-atomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it has a relative mass of 1 and a relative charge of +1; the number of protons in an atom is the same as the atomic number
- proton number: an alternative name for the atomic number
- sub-atomic particles: particles that are smaller than an atom.
Lesson 9Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 26–27
📚 Specification Points
- 1.16 know what is meant by the terms atomic number, mass number, and relative atomic mass (Ar)
- 1.17 be able to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element (Ar) from isotopic abundances
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term isotope
- explain that the presence of isotopes leads to atoms of the same element having different mass numbers
- calculate the relative atomic mass for an element from isotopic abundances.
🔑 Key Words
- isotopes: different atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons; isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties
- relative atomic mass: the weighted average mass of the isotopes of an element, relative to the mass of 1 12 of a 12C atom
Lesson 10The Periodic Table→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 30–34
📚 Specification Points
- 1.18 understand how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table: • in order of atomic number • in groups and periods.
- 1.19 understand how to deduce the electronic configurations of the first 20 elements from their positions in the Periodic Table
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in order of atomic number
- describe how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in groups and periods
- deduce the electronic configuration of the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table.
🔑 Key Words
- electronic configuration: how electrons are arranged in the shells (energy levels) in an atom
- energy levels or shells: where electrons are found in an atom; each shell can only hold a certain number of electrons
- group: a vertical column in the Periodic Table; all elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons
- period: a horizontal row in the Periodic Table; all elements in the same period have the same number of occupied shells
- Periodic Table: a table in which elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number and in terms of chemical and physical properties
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection. Use no more than three small calcium granules.
Lesson 11Using Electronic Configurations→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 33–35
📚 Specification Points
- 1.22 understand how the electronic configuration of a main group element is related to its position in the Periodic Table
- 1.23 understand why elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties
- 1.24 understand why the noble gases (Group 0) do not readily react
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how the electronic configuration of an element is related to its position in the Periodic Table
- explain why elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties
- explain why noble gases do not readily react.
🔑 Key Words
- noble gases: non-metallic gases from Group 0 including helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon
Lesson 12Metals and Non-metals→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 35–36
📚 Specification Points
- 1.20 understand how to use electrical conductivity and the acid-base character of oxides to classify elements as metals or non-metals
- 1.21 identify an element as a metal or a non-metal according to its position in the Periodic Table
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify an element as a metal or a non-metal depending on its position in the Periodic Table
- describe how to use electrical conductivity to classify an element as a metal or non-metal
- describe how to use the acid–base character of oxides to classify an element as a metal or a non-metal.
🔑 Key Words
- ductile: a property of metal that allows it to be drawn out into wires
- malleable: a property of metal that allows it to be hammered into different shapes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety considerations for this practical.
- • Wear eye protection: 0.2M nitric acid, 0.2M potassium hydroxide and 0.2M sodium hydroxide are irritants.
- • When stretching wires, wear eye protection.
- • When using the hammer to beat the lead rod, wear eye protection and use a safety screen.
- • Have some cushioning material positioned below the slotted masses and wire to avoid the masses landing on the floor or bouncing off the table.
Lesson 15Ions→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–78
📚 Specification Points
- 1.37 Understand how ions are formed by electron loss or gain.
- 1.38 Know the charges of these ions: Metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3 Non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7 Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term ion
- explain how positive ions (cations) are formed by the loss of electrons
- explain how negative ions (anions) are formed by the gain of electrons
- predict the charges of ions formed by metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3
- predict the charges of ions formed by non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7
- recall the charges and formulae of these ions: Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺
🔑 Key Words
- ion: an atom or group of atoms that has gained or lost electrons, giving it a positive or negative charge
- cation: a positively charged ion formed by the loss of electrons
- anion: a negatively charged ion formed by the gain of electrons
- electron loss: the process by which a metal atom becomes a positively charged ion
- electron gain: the process by which a non-metal atom becomes a negatively charged ion
Lesson 16Ionic Bonds→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–78
📚 Specification Points
- 1.39 Write formulae for compounds formed between the following ions: Metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3 Non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7 Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺ Hydrogen (H⁺), hydroxide (OH⁻), ammonium (NH₄⁺), carbonate (CO₃²⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), sulfate (SO₄²⁻)
- 1.40 Draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show the formation of ionic compounds by electron transfer, limited to combinations of elements from Groups 1, 2, 3 and 5, 6, 7. Only outer electrons need be shown.
- 1.41 Understand ionic bonding in terms of electrostatic attractions.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- In this lesson, students will learn to: write formulae for compounds made from:
- ions in Groups 1–3 and 5–7
- Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺
- H⁺, OH⁻, NH₄⁺, CO₃²⁻, NO₃⁻ and SO₄²⁻
- draw dot-and-cross diagrams for ionic compounds made from elements in Groups 1–3 and Groups 5–6
- describe an ionic bond as an electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
🔑 Key Words
- electrostatic force: the force of attraction between a positive charge and a negative charge
- ionic bond: strong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions, formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another
- isoelectronic: having the same number of electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Wear eye protection throughout the practical.
- Do not look directly at burning magnesium — the bright light can damage eyes. Wear eye protection.
Lesson 17Properties of Ionic Lattices→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 81–83
📚 Specification Points
- 1.42 understand why compounds with giant ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points
- 1.43 know that ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when solid, but do conduct electricity when molten and in aqueous solution
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of a giant ionic lattice
- evaluate the use of models for ionic lattices
- explain why ionic lattices are brittle
- explain why ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points
- explain why ionic compounds can conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but not when solid.
🔑 Key Words
- giant: a structure in which there are no individual molecules or particles (ions/atoms) because the bonding extends in all directions with no limit to the number of particles present
- giant ionic lattice: the arrangement of ions in an ionic compound in its solid state
- lattice: a regular arrangement of particles
- molten: the liquid state formed when a solid has melted
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety considerations for this practical.
- • Group students into small groups and ask each group to follow the instructions on Worksheet 1: Practical method 1 and use the information about ionic bonds, ion size and electrostatic forces to make and evaluate a model of the ion structure in sodium chloride. When evaluating their models, students should note good and bad points.
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • There should be no naked flames in the laboratory as ethanol is highly flammable.
- • Ensure that the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Take particular care with any students who have asthma, as chlorine is produced from sodium chloride.
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • Ensure that the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Take particular care with any students who have asthma, as chlorine is produced from sodium chloride.
Lesson 18Reactions of Group 1 Metals→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 122–126
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 understand how the similarities in the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for their recognition as a family of elements
- 2.2 understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 1
🎯 Learning Objectives
- compare the appearance and density of Group 1 metals with common transition metals such as iron and copper
- describe the reactions of Group 1 metals with water
- write equations for the reactions of Group 1 metals with water
- explain how similarities in the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for their recognition as a family of elements
- explain how the differences between the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity of Group 1.
🔑 Key Words
- alkali metals: the elements of Group 1
- reactivity: how readily a substance reacts with other chemicals to form new compounds
- tarnish: to become dull and lose colour
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection and stand behind a safety screen during the demonstration. Ensure that students wear eye protection and remain at least 1 metre away from the screen.
- • Only use small amounts of alkali metals at a time (about half the size of a pea). You should practise using the alkali metals prior to the lesson. Do not be tempted by the exuberance of the students to use larger pieces.
- • All the demonstrations should be practised prior to being carried out in front of students. As students only need to see the results of the experiments and do not carry them out, video material is an acceptable alternative.
Lesson 19Reactivity Trend of the Group 1 Metals→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 122–129
📚 Specification Points
- 2.2 understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 1
- 2.3 use knowledge of trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity of Group 1 elements
- explain the trend in reactivity in Group 1 in terms of electronic configurations
- use knowledge of the trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals.
🔑 Key Words
- alkali metals: the elements of Group 1
- reactivity: how readily a substance reacts with other chemicals to form new compounds
Lesson 20Properties of the Halogens→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 130–131
📚 Specification Points
- 2.5 know the colours, physical states (at room temperature) and trends in physical properties of these elements
- 2.6 use knowledge of trends in Group 7 to predict the properties of other halogens
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the colours, physical states (at room temperature) and trends in physical properties of the Group 7 elements
- predict the properties of other halogens based on their knowledge of the trends in Group 7
- describe some uses for Group 7 elements.
🔑 Key Words
- covalent bond: a strong electrostatic force of attraction between the nuclei of the atoms making up the bond and the shared pair of electrons
- diatomic molecule: a molecule that contains two atoms
- halogen: a Group 7 element, including chlorine, fluorine, bromine and iodine
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ensure that the lab is very well ventilated.
- • Chlorine must be stored in a fume cupboard.
- • Smell chlorine very carefully.
Lesson 21Reactivity of the Halogens→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 132–134
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 understand how displacement reactions involving halogens and halides provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 7
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term ‘displacement reaction’
- describe how displacement reactions involving halogens and halides provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 7
- write equations for displacement reactions involving halogens and halide ions
- explain the trend in reactivity of Group 7 in terms of electron configurations.
🔑 Key Words
- halogen: an element in Group 7 of the periodic table
- displacement reaction: a reaction in which a more reactive element takes the place of a less reactive element in a compound
- reactivity: a measure of how readily an element undergoes chemical reactions
- halide: a negative ion formed when a halogen atom gains one electron
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Take care not to inhale halogen vapours.
- • Ensure that the lab is very well ventilated.
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Carry out the demonstration in a fume cupboard.
Lesson 22Covalent Bonding→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 85–91
📚 Specification Points
- 1.44 know that a covalent bond is formed between atoms by the sharing of a pair of electrons
- 1.45 understand covalent bonds in terms of electrostatic attractions
- 1.46 understand how to use dot-and-cross diagrams to represent covalent bonds in: • diatomic molecules, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, and hydrogen halides • inorganic molecules including water, ammonia, and carbon dioxide • organic molecules containing up to two carbon atoms, including methane, ethane, ethene and those containing halogen atoms.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe what a covalent bond is in terms of the sharing of electrons
- understand covalent bonds in terms of electrostatic attraction
- understand how to use dot-and-cross diagrams to represent molecules.
🔑 Key Words
- covalent bonding: strong electrostatic force of attraction between the nuclei of the atoms making up the bond and the shared pair of electrons
- diatomic molecule: a molecule that contains two atoms
- double bond: atoms sharing two pairs of electrons in a covalent bond
- molecule: two or more atoms covalently bonded together; molecules contain a certain fixed number of atoms
- octet rule: the octet rule states that atoms generally lose, gain, or share electrons to have eight electrons in their outer shell
- triple bond: atoms sharing three pairs of electrons in a covalent bond
Lesson 23Simple Covalent Molecules→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 92–93
📚 Specification Points
- 1.47 explain why substances with a simple molecular structures are gases or liquids, or solids with low melting and boiling points the term intermolecular forces of attraction can be used to represent all forces between molecules
- 1.48 explain why the melting and boiling points of substances with simple molecular structures increase, in general, with increasing relative molecular mass
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why substances with a simple molecular structure have low melting and boiling points
- explain why the melting and boiling points of simple molecular structures increase, in general, with increasing relative molecular mass
- know that covalent compounds do not usually conduct electricity.
🔑 Key Words
- intermolecular forces: forces of attraction between covalent molecules, much weaker than the covalent bonds within the molecules
- simple molecular structure: the type of structure formed when molecules are joined together by intermolecular forces
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection must be worn.
- • Indirect heating of the alkanes makes it unlikely that they will ignite. However, some of the molten alkanes will be hot to the touch. Care should be taken.
- • Standard procedures should be adopted when using Bunsen burners.
- • Warn students about the hazard of heated water, and to take care that the water bath and tubes are stable during and after the experiment.
- • Care should be taken when placing tubes into the water bath, so that students are not working directly over a lit Bunsen burner.
Lesson 24Allotropes of Carbon→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 93–97
📚 Specification Points
- 1.49 explain why substances with giant covalent structures are solids with high melting and boiling points
- 1.50 explain how the structures of diamond, graphite and C60 fullerene influence their physical properties, including electrical conductivity and hardness
- 1.51 know that covalent compounds do not usually conduct electricity
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why substances with giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points
- explain how the structures of diamond, graphite and C60 fullerenes influence their physical properties
- know that covalent compounds do not usually conduct electricity.
🔑 Key Words
- allotropes: different forms of the same element (for example, diamond, graphite and C60 fullerene are three allotropes of carbon)
- delocalised electrons: electrons that are no longer attached to particular atoms or pairs of atoms but are free to move through the whole structure
- fullerenes: a family of molecules made of carbon atoms joined by single and double bonds that form closed or partially closed structures
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- There is no safety issue if the spaghetti is pre-cut.
Lesson 28Core Practical – Reactivity Series→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 145–146 and 150–156
Lab Book: Pages 18–19
📚 Specification Points
- 2.17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
- 2.15 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their reactions with: • water • dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid.
- 2.21 practical: investigate reactions between dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids and metals (e.g., magnesium, zinc and iron)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the reactivity series of metals in terms of the reactivity of the metals with water and dilute acids
- describe the reactions of common metals with water and acids
- deduce the order of metals in the reactivity series from their reactions with water and acids.
🔑 Key Words
- reactivity series: a list of metals in order of decreasing reactivity
- salt: a compound formed when hydrogen is replaced by a metal or ammonium in an acid
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Ethanol/spirit is flammable. Keep away from naked flames and sources of ignition.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- with water and dilute acids
- Some metals, such as copper, silver and gold, do not react with dilute acids.
- Some metals, such as sodium and potassium, react violently with dilute acids.
Lesson 29Displacement Reactions Involving Metal Oxides→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 146–148
📚 Specification Points
- 2.16 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their displacement reactions between: • metals and metal oxides
- 2.17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
- 2.20 understand the terms: • oxidation • reduction • redox • oxidising agent • reducing agent in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the reactions of metals with metal oxides
- explain why displacement reactions are examples of redox reactions
- deduce the order of metals in the reactivity series from the reactions between metals and metal oxides
- explain the reactivity series in terms of the tendency of different metal atoms to form cations
- state the meaning of the terms: oxidation, reduction, redox, oxidising agent and reducing agent in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons.
🔑 Key Words
- oxidation: a reaction when a substance gains oxygen or loses electrons
- oxidising agent: a substance that oxidises another substance by giving oxygen to it or removing electrons from it
- redox reaction: a reaction when one substance is reduced (gains electrons) and another substance is oxidised (loses electrons) at the same time
- reducing agent: a substance that reduces another substance by removing oxygen from it or by giving electrons to it
- reduction: a reaction when a substance loses oxygen or gains electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear goggles ( not safety spectacles) or a face shield.
- • Students must wear eye protection and should stand at least 4 m away at the back of the laboratory.
- • This experiment must not be performed outdoors.
- • This experiment must not be performed in a fume cupboard.
- • The laboratory must be well ventilated.
- • Use safety screens and cover the bench top with heat-resistant mats.
- • Aluminium powder is highly flammable.
- • Do not use any other forms of ignition, such as potassium manganate(VII) and hot glycerol as the filter paper catches fire.
- • Do not use any copper oxide, chromium(VI) oxide, lead oxide or manganese(IV) oxide.
- • The procedure can be carried out safely, providing the control measures are rigorously adhered to.
- • No additional igniter is needed. Light a Bunsen burner, use it to ignite the sparkler, then move behind the safety screens. Once the reaction has stopped, remove the beaker. Retrieve the iron formed with a magnet. Wash the iron under running water.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Take care with the hot apparatus.
- • Do not look directly at magnesium when it reacts.
- • Zinc and magnesium are highly flammable.
Lesson 30Displacement Reactions Involving Solutions of Salts→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 148–150
📚 Specification Points
- 2.16 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their displacement reactions between: • metals and aqueous solutions of metal salts.
- 2.17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
- 2.20 understand the terms: • oxidation • reduction • redox • oxidising agent • reducing agent in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the reactions of metals with salt solutions
- explain why displacement reactions are redox reactions
- deduce the order of metals in the reactivity series from their reactions with salt solutions
- explain the reactivity series in terms of the tendency of different metal atoms to form cations.
🔑 Key Words
- displacement reaction: a reaction in which a more reactive metal takes the place of a less reactive metal in a compound
- reactivity series: a list of metals arranged in order of their reactivity
- aqueous solution: a solution in which water is the solvent
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Magnesium is highly flammable – make sure there are no naked flames in the laboratory.
Lesson 31Rusting→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 139 and 156–157
📚 Specification Points
- 2.18 know the conditions under which iron rusts
- 2.19 understand how the rusting of iron may be prevented by: • barrier methods • galvanising • sacrificial protection
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe corrosion of metals as the result of oxidation
- describe how rusting of iron occurs
- explain how rusting can be prevented by excluding oxygen and/or water
- explain how sacrificial protection works.
🔑 Key Words
- barrier protection: a method of rust prevention by coating with oil, paint, grease or plastic so that water and oxygen cannot reach the iron
- rusting: the corrosion of iron in the presence of oxygen and water
- sacrificial protection: a method of preventing rusting by attaching a block of a more reactive metal to the surface of the iron or steel
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
- • Care is needed with solutions of acid. Wash off splashes immediately.
- • Answers may include: keeping air/water away from iron; storing in an unreactive atmosphere of nitrogen or argon; using a desiccant powder to absorb water vapour; painting; oiling; greasing; coating with plastic. Some students may even say sacrificial protection or galvanising.
Lesson 34Tests for Gases→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 191–192
📚 Specification Points
- 2.44 describe tests for these gases: • hydrogen • oxygen • carbon dioxide • ammonia • chlorine.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the test for hydrogen and the positive result
- describe the test for oxygen and the positive result
- describe the test for carbon dioxide and the positive result
- describe the test for ammonia and the positive result
- describe the test for chlorine and the positive result.
🔑 Key Words
- bleach: to remove all colour from an object and turn it white
- clear: you can see through it
- colourless: has no colour
- litmus paper: paper that contains a dye that reacts with acids or alkalis to change colour
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Carry out this work in a fume cupboard or well-ventilated area.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 35Tests for Positive Ions→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 192–194
📚 Specification Points
- 2.45 describe how to carry out a flame test
- 2.46 know the colours formed in flame tests for these cations: • Li⁺ is red • Na⁺ is yellow • K⁺ is lilac • Ca²⁺ is orange-red • Cu²⁺ is blue-green
- 2.47 describe tests for these cations: • NH₄⁺ using sodium hydroxide solution and identifying the gas evolved • Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ using sodium hydroxide solution
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why the test for a given ion must be unique to that ion
- recall some metal hydroxide precipitate colours
- describe how to identify metal ions using sodium hydroxide solution
- describe how to identify ammonium ions and ammonia. Slideshow: Learning objectives
🔑 Key Words
- nichrome: an unreactive metal alloy
- precipitate: a fine insoluble solid that is formed by a chemical reaction involving substances in solution Slideshow: Key definitions
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- hydrochloric acid and hold it in a Bunsen burner flame.
- the wire and the unknown salt in a roaring (blue) Bunsen burner flame.
Lesson 37Testing for Negative Ions and Water→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 192 and 194–196
📚 Specification Points
- 2.48 describe tests for these anions: • Cl⁻, Br⁻ and I⁻ using acidified silver nitrate solution • SO₄²⁻ using acidified barium chloride solution • CO₃²⁻ using hydrochloric acid and identifying the gas evolved.
- 2.49 describe a test for the presence of water using anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
- 2.50 describe a physical test to show whether a sample of water is pure
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how to identify carbonate ions
- describe how to identify sulfate ions in solution
- describe how to identify halide ions in solution
- describe a test for the presence of water.
🔑 Key Words
- anhydrous: without water
- carbonate ions: ions formed by carbon and oxygen
- halide ions: ions formed by halogens
- sulfate ions: ions formed by sulfur and water
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn.
- Avoid skin contact with the substances used.
- Barium chloride solution is harmful.
- Dilute nitric acid is an irritant.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 38Rates of Reaction – Surface Area and Concentration→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 227–233
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature on the rate of a reaction
- 3.10 describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature on the rate of a reaction
- 3.11 explain the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, and temperature on the rate of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what has to happen for reactions to take place
- explain why changes in the frequency of collisions between particles affect the rate of reaction
- describe how to calculate rate of reaction from experimental data.
🔑 Key Words
- activation energy: the minimum amount of energy required for a collision to be successful, i.e., result in a reaction
- collision theory: states that for a reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide with each other, in the correct orientation and with sufficient energy
- concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a certain volume of solvent; in general, if you increase the concentration of reactants in a reaction, the rate of reaction increases
- rate: the speed at which the amount of reactant decreases or the amount of product increases; it is measured as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time
- surface area: the area on the surface of a solid that is exposed
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection. Handle acids and alkalis with care; wash any splashes off skin immediately.
- Ethanol/spirit is flammable. Keep away from naked flames and sources of ignition.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 231–233
Lab Book: Pages 37–41
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature, on the rate of a reaction
- 3.10 describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, pressure of a gas, temperature and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
- 3.11 explain the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, pressure of a gas and temperature on the rate of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory
- 3.15 practical: investigate the effect of changing the surface area of marble chips and of changing the concentration of hydrochloric acid on the rate of reaction between marble chips and dilute hydrochloric acid.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid or concentration of a solution on the rate of a reaction
- describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid or concentration of a solution on the rate of a reaction
- explain the effects of changes in surface area of a solid or concentration of a solution on the rate of a reaction
- explain why a graph of concentration against time is a curve.
🔑 Key Words
- concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a certain volume of solvent; in general, if you increase the concentration of reactants in a reaction, the rate of reaction increases
- rate: the speed at which the amount of reactant decreases or the amount of product increases; it is measured as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time
- surface area: the area on the surface of a solid that is exposed
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Care is needed with acid solutions. Wash off splashes immediately. Hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 1.0 mol/dm³ is a low hazard but may still cause harm in eyes and in cuts.
- • Calcium carbonate is a low hazard.
- • Eye protection must be worn by teacher and students.
- • The best alcohol to use is propan-2-ol. Propan-1-ol, ethanol or methanol [not above room temperatures greater that 22 °C] could be used – do not use any other flammable liquids.
- • Do not add oxygen to the bottle.
- • Only use polycarbonate bottles, identified by PC mark on base. Do not use glass bottles or damaged polycarbonate bottles.
Lesson 40Energy and Rates of Reaction→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 234–238
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in temperature, and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
- 3.10 describe the effects of changes in pressure of a gas, temperature, and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
- 3.11 explain the effects of changes in pressure of a gas and temperature on the rate of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory
- 3.12 know that a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction
- 3.13 know that a catalyst works by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy
- 3.16 practical: investigate the effect of different solids on the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe an experiment to investigate the effect of changing temperature on the rate of a reaction
- describe and explain the effect of changing temperature on the rate of a reaction
- explain that a catalyst lowers activation energy by providing an alternative reaction pathway, and is chemically unchanged at the end of a reaction
- draw and explain reaction profile diagrams showing ΔH and activation energy
- describe how to investigate the effect of different catalysts on the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution.
🔑 Key Words
- rate of reaction: the speed at which reactants are converted into products
- activation energy: the minimum amount of energy that colliding particles must have in order to react
- catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up
- collision theory: the idea that particles must collide with sufficient energy for a reaction to occur
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection at all times.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 41Writing Equations and Relative Formula Mass→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 38–44
📚 Specification Points
- 1.25 write word equations and balanced chemical equations (including state symbols): • for reactions studied in this specification • for unfamiliar reactions where suitable information is provided
- 1.26 calculate relative formula masses (including relative molecular masses) (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- write word equations from chemical reactions
- write balanced chemical symbol equations
- calculate the relative formula mass of a substance from relative atomic masses.
🔑 Key Words
- balancing equations: a process of putting coefficients in front of formulae so that the same number of atoms of each type is on both sides of an equation
- coefficient: a number written in front of formulae in a balanced chemical equation
- formula: a representation of a chemical showing the elements present and how many atoms are bonded together in each molecule
- relative atomic mass: the weighted average mass of the isotopes of an element, relative to the mass of one-twelfth of a 12C atom
- relative formula mass: the weighted average mass of a formula unit of a compound, relative to the mass of one-twelfth of a 12C atom; it is sometimes called the relative molecular mass, when it refers to covalent molecules
- state symbol: a symbol after each species of an equation that indicates whether it is a solid (s), liquid (l), solution (aq) or gas (g)
- symbol equation: a representation of a chemical reaction using chemical formulae
Lesson 42The Mole→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 44–46
📚 Specification Points
- 1.27 know that the mole (mol) is the unit for the amount of a substance
- 1.28 understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula mass (Mr)
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe what is meant by a mole of particles
- calculate the number of particles in a given number of moles of a substance and vice versa
- calculate the number of moles of particles in a given mass of a certain substance and vice versa
- explain that a balanced equation describes the ratio in which chemicals react.
🔑 Key Words
- Avogadro's number: this is the number of particles in one mole of anything (6.02 × 1023)
- mole: a unit of the amount of a substance; a mole of anything contains the same number of particles as there are carbon atoms in 12 g of 12C (6.02 × 1023) particles
Lesson 43Reacting Masses and Percentage Yield→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 57–58
📚 Specification Points
- 1.28 understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula mass (Mr)
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
- 1.30 calculate percentage yield
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the mass of a reactant needed to produce a given amount of product, using a balanced equation
- calculate the percentage yield of a reaction
- describe some reasons why the actual yield is less than the theoretical yield of a reaction.
🔑 Key Words
- actual yield: the mass of product actually made in a reaction
- mass = molar mass (Mr) \(×\) number of moles
- percentage yield: the actual yield expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield
- theoretical yield: the maximum mass of a product that should be possible to make in a reaction
- yield: the amount of something that is produced in a chemical reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Dilute hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 44Limiting Reagents and Gas Volumes→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 58–59 and 64–67
📚 Specification Points
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain that the mass of a product formed in a reaction is controlled by the mass of reactant that is not in excess
- describe the molar volume of any gas at room temperature and pressure as the volume occupied by one mole of molecules of any gas at room temperature and pressure
- use the molar volume in calculations involving solids and gases in reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- excess: having more than enough of a reactant to react with all of something else
- limiting reagent: the reactant that is completely used up during a reaction
- molar gas volume: the volume occupied by one mole of a gas
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Hydrochloric acid is an irritant, avoid contact with skin.
Lesson 46Core Practical – Empirical Formula→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 46–50
Lab Book: Pages 8–12
📚 Specification Points
- 1.33 calculate empirical and molecular formulae from experimental data
- 1.32 know what is meant by the terms: empirical formula and molecular formula
- 1.36 practical: know how to determine the formula of a metal oxide by combustion (e.g. magnesium oxide) or by reduction (e.g., copper(II) oxide)
- 1.31 understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including metal oxides, water and salts containing water of crystallisation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the empirical formula of a compound from the masses of the elements it contains
- explain the difference between an empirical formula and a molecular formula
- deduce the empirical formula from a molecular formula, and the molecular formula for a compound from its empirical formula and its relative formula mass
- describe an experiment to determine the empirical formula for a compound
- understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including metal oxides.
🔑 Key Words
- empirical formula: gives the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element present in a compound. It can be worked out from experimental data
- molecular formula: shows the actual number of each type of atom present in a molecule (covalent compound) or formula unit (ionic compound)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
Lesson 49Acids, Alkalis, and Indicators→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 167–170
📚 Specification Points
- 2.28 describe the use of litmus, phenolphthalein, and methyl orange to distinguish between acidic and alkaline solutions
- 2.31 know that acids in aqueous solution are a source of hydrogen ions and alkalis in a aqueous solution are a source of hydroxide ions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how an indicator can be used to identify whether a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
- state the acidic, neutral, and alkaline colours for litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange
- state that acidic substances release hydrogen ions when in solution
- state that alkaline substances release hydroxide ions when in solution.
🔑 Key Words
- acid: a substance that acts as a source of hydrogen ions in solution or as a proton donor
- alkali: a soluble base that acts as a source of hydroxide ions in solution or as a proton acceptor
- base: a substance that neutralises acids by combining with the hydrogen ions in them
- indicator: a substance that has different colours depending on the pH
- neutral: a substance with a pH value of 7
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection at all times (sodium hydroxide is corrosive).
- Wipe up spills as soon as possible. Care is required with some indicators, which are highly flammable.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- flammable; keep away from flames (and sources
- corrosive; wear gloves and safety glasses (wash
Lesson 51Neutralisation→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 170–172
📚 Specification Points
- 2.32 know that alkalis can neutralise acids
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that alkalis can neutralise acids
- explain why the solution of a salt and water is neutral
- state that the reaction between alkalis and acids is called neutralisation
- write ionic equations for neutralisation.
🔑 Key Words
- ionic equation: shows only the ions taking part in a reaction
- neutralisation: a chemical reaction in which acids react with bases or alkalis to produce salts
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn.
- Calcium hydroxide is an irritant, with a risk of serious damage to eyes.
- Dilute hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
Lesson 52Concentration and Water of Crystallisation→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 67–69 and 170–172
📚 Specification Points
- 1.31 understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including salts containing water of crystallisation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the meaning of the term ‘mole’
- convert between volume measurements in cm³ and dm³
- calculate the concentration of an acid neutralising an alkali of known concentration and vice-versa
- explain how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including salts containing water of crystallisation.
🔑 Key Words
- hydrated: containing water
- water of crystallisation: water molecules that are part of a crystal structure in which they are chemically bound up with a salt; they are represented by .xH2O in the formulae of compounds, for example CuSO4.5H2O means there are five water molecules associated with each CuSO4 unit
Lesson 53Reactions of Acids→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 167–170, 173–174 and 191
📚 Specification Points
- 2.35 understand acids and bases in terms of proton transfer
- 2.36 understand that an acid is a proton donor, and a base is a proton acceptor
- 2.37 describe the reactions of hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid with metals, bases, and metal carbonates (excluding the reactions between nitric acid and metals) to form salts
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that acids release H⁺ ions and that bases accept H⁺ ions
- describe how acids transfer H⁺ ions to bases
- state the general reactions for acids with metals, bases and carbonates
- state that hydrochloric acid forms chloride salts, sulfuric acid forms sulfate salts and nitric acid forms nitrate salts.
🔑 Key Words
- acid: a substance that acts as a source of hydrogen ions in solution or as a proton donor
- alkali: a soluble base that acts as a source of hydroxide ions in solution or as a proton acceptor
- base: a substance that will react with an acid to form only salt and water
- indicator: a substance that has different colours depending on the pH
- neutral: a substance with a pH value of 7
- proton: a positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
- reactivity series: a list of metals in order of reactivity, with the most reactive metal at the top
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ensure the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ensure the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ensure the laboratory is well ventilated.
Lesson 55Core Practical – Preparing Soluble Salts→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 176–180 and 185–187
Lab Book: Pages 20–22
📚 Specification Points
- 2.39 describe an experiment to prepare a pure, dry sample of a soluble salt, starting from an insoluble reactant
- 2.42 practical: prepare a sample of pure, dry hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals starting from copper(II) oxide
🎯 Learning Objectives
- select the correct insoluble reactant and acid to make a named soluble salt
- describe the experimental procedure to make a soluble salt from a base
- explain the steps used in the method
- describe how to make pure, dry crystals from a solution.
🔑 Key Words
- acid: a substance that acts as a source of hydrogen ions in solution or as a proton donor
- alkali: a soluble base that acts as a source of hydroxide ions in solution or as a proton acceptor
- base: a substance that will react with an acid to form only salt and water
- indicator: a substance that has different colours depending on the pH
- neutral: a substance with a pH value of 7
- proton: a positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
Lesson 57Core Practical – Preparing Insoluble Salts→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Student Book pages 183–185
Lab Book: Page 23
📚 Specification Points
- 2.34 know the general rules for predicting the solubility of ionic compounds in water: • common sodium, potassium and ammonium compounds are soluble • all nitrates are soluble • common chlorides are soluble, except those of silver and lead(II) • common sulfates are soluble, except for those of barium, calcium and lead(II) • common carbonates are insoluble, except for those of sodium, potassium and ammonium • common hydroxides are insoluble except for those of sodium, potassium and calcium (calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know the solubility rules
- determine whether a salt is soluble or insoluble from a chemical equation
- for a named salt, choose a salt preparation method depending on the salt’s solubility
- describe the experimental procedure of preparing an insoluble salt
- explain the steps used in the method to get a pure, dry salt.
🔑 Key Words
- insoluble salt: a salt that does not dissolve in water
- precipitation: a reaction in which two solutions are mixed to form an insoluble solid (precipitate)
- filtration: the separation of an insoluble solid from a liquid using filter paper
- precipitate: an insoluble solid formed in a solution during a chemical reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection, disposable gloves and a safety mask should be worn when doing the demonstration.
- • The demonstration should be carried out in a fume cupboard.
- • Potassium chromate(VI) is toxic and dangerous for the environment. It is a category 2 carcinogen and a category 2 mutagen. It may cause cancer by inhalation and may cause heritable genetic damage.
- • The technician must wear gloves when making up the potassium chromate solution and use a fume cupboard. The solution containing 0.5 g/dm³ is low hazard.
- • Discuss how you could separate the silver chromate(VI) from the mixture, but do not attempt to do this as it may be a carcinogen .
Lesson 59Titration Calculations→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 70–72 and 170–172, 181
📚 Specification Points
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the number of moles in a solution using volume and concentration
- calculate the moles of one reactant knowing the moles of the other reactant and the equation
- calculate a mean titre value
- calculate the concentration of a solution using titration data.
🔑 Key Words
- titration: a technique used to find the exact volume of one solution needed to react with a known volume of another
- concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of solution
- mole: the amount of substance containing 6.02 × 10²³ particles
Lesson 60Titrations and Volumetric Analysis→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 70–72 and 170–172
📚 Specification Points
- 1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain each of the techniques in a titration method
- complete a results table for a titration
- calculate the concentration of an acid/alkali using titration data
- describe the steps to take to get concordant titration results.
🔑 Key Words
- titration: a technique for finding the precise volume of a solution needed to react with another
- burette: a piece of apparatus used to measure the volume of solution added during a titration
- pipette: a piece of apparatus used to measure a fixed volume of solution
- end point: the point in a titration where the indicator changes colour permanently
- indicator: a substance that changes colour to show when a reaction is complete
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection must be worn.
Lesson 61Core Practical – The Atmosphere→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 137–141
Lab Book: Pages 16–17
📚 Specification Points
- 2.9 know the approximate percentages by volume of the four most abundant gases in dry air
- 2.10 understand how to determine the percentage by volume of oxygen in air using experiments involving the reactions of metals (e.g., iron) and non-metals (e.g., phosphorus) with air
- 2.14 practical: determine the approximate percentage by volume of oxygen in air using a metal or a non-metal
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the percentage composition of dry air
- state that when some elements oxidise in air, only oxygen is removed from the air, leaving a smaller volume of gas
- describe a method of finding the percentage of oxygen in the air
- calculate the percentage of oxygen in the air
- explain the limitations of these methods.
🔑 Key Words
- atmosphere: layer of gases which surround a planet and are held in place by gravity
- combustion: a chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen (burns) to form products and heat
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn throughout to prevent any tiny pieces from the iron wool getting into eyes.
- Small pieces of iron can be an irritant on the skin, wash off any as soon as possible.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- Eye protection should be worn throughout.
- Eye protection or a face shield should be worn throughout.
- The practical should ideally be carried out in a fume cupboard.
- This is a dangerous experiment and so is a teacher-led demonstration.
Lesson 62The Greenhouse Effect→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 142–143
📚 Specification Points
- 2.13 know that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that increasing amounts in the atmosphere may contribute to climate change
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the meaning of 'greenhouse gas' and ‘greenhouse effect’
- state the common greenhouse gases
- describe the basic processes that add or remove carbon dioxide to/from the atmosphere
- evaluate the evidence that humans are adding carbon dioxide to the air.
🔑 Key Words
- causal link: when one thing can be shown to be causing another thing
- climate change: changes that happen to the global weather patterns as a result of global warming
- correlation: a relationship between two variables, such that if one variable changes so does the other; this can be positive or negative
- emit: give out
- global warming: greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, trap the heat radiated from the Earth’s surface (originally from the Sun) and lead to an increase in the temperature of the Earth and its atmosphere
- greenhouse gas: gases, such as carbon dioxide, which can trap heat radiated from the Earth’s surface (originally from the Sun)
Lesson 64Oxidation Reactions→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 104 and 147
📚 Specification Points
- 2.11 describe the combustion of elements in oxygen, including magnesium, hydrogen and sulfur
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term ‘combustion’
- describe that combustion is an oxidation reaction
- describe the reactions of metals and non-metals with oxygen, including writing equations.
🔑 Key Words
- combustion: a chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen (burns) to form products and heat
- oxidation: gain of oxygen or loss of electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection must be worn.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Carry out this work in a fume cupboard or well-ventilated area.
Lesson 65Decomposition of Carbonates→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 142
📚 Specification Points
- 2.12 describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates, including copper(II) carbonate
🎯 Learning Objectives
- learn the meaning of the term 'decomposition'
- describe how some compounds can be thermally decomposed
- describe an experiment to see how quickly some carbonates decompose
- write equations for thermal decompositions.
🔑 Key Words
- thermal decomposition: the breaking down of a compound into simpler substances using heat
- metal carbonate: a compound containing a metal, carbon and oxygen
- limewater: a solution of calcium hydroxide used to test for carbon dioxide
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Caution with suck back when the students take the boiling tube away from the heat source. Make sure they remove the limewater first.
- Wear eye protection.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 67Introduction to Organic Chemistry→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 255–258
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 know that a hydrocarbon is a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
- 4.2 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define a hydrocarbon as a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
- represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae.
🔑 Key Words
- displayed formula: a formula that shows all the bonds in a molecule as individual lines, each line representing a pair of shared electrons in a covalent bond
- hydrocarbon: a compound consisting of hydrogen and carbon atoms only
- organic compound: a compound that contains carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms
- structural formula: a formula that shows how the atoms are joined together in a molecule, which is often written in a condensed form by omitting all of the carbon–carbon and carbon–hydrogen single bonds
Lesson 69Naming Organic Compounds→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 258–260, 287, 288, 293, 294 and 297–299
📚 Specification Points
- 4.3 know what is meant by the terms homologous series and functional group
- 4.4 understand how to name compounds (containing up to six carbon atoms) using the rules of International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature
🎯 Learning Objectives
- name functional groups and their homologous series
- name alkanes, up to six carbons
- name alkenes, up to six carbons
- name alcohols and carboxylic acids and esters.
🔑 Key Words
- alcohols: a homologous series of compounds that all contain an –OH functional group attached to a hydrocarbon chain
- alkanes: a homologous series of similar hydrocarbons in which all the carbons are joined to each other with single covalent bonds; these are saturated compounds with the general formula CnH2n+2
- alkenes: a homologous series of hydrocarbons that contain a carbon–carbon double bond; these are unsaturated compounds with the general formula CnH2n
- carboxylic acids: a homologous series of compounds that all contain a –COOH functional group attached to a hydrocarbon chain
- esters: a group of organic compounds formed by the reaction of an alcohol and a carboxylic acid; they have the functional group –COO–.
- functional group: an atom or a group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a compound
- general formula: a formula applicable to all members of a homologous series, for example CnH2n+2 for alkanes, and CnH2n for alkenes
- homologous series: a series of compounds with similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group; each member differs from the next by –CH2– and the members show a gradual change in properties
- saturated compound: a compound containing only carbon–carbon single bonds with no carbon–carbon double or triple bonds
- unsaturated compound: a compound containing one or more carbon–carbon double or triple bonds
Lesson 70Isomers→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 261–264
📚 Specification Points
- 4.2 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
- 4.3 know what is meant by the term isomerism
- 4.5 understand how to write the possible structural and displayed formulae of an organic molecule given its molecular formula
🎯 Learning Objectives
- that carbon always forms four covalent bonds
- the meaning of the term 'isomer'
- to draw and name all isomers of a molecule.
🔑 Key Words
- structural isomerism: the existence of two or more different structures with the same molecular formula
- structural isomers: molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae
Lesson 71Empirical Formulae→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 46–47, 256–258
📚 Specification Points
- 4.2 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
- 4.5 understand how to write the possible structural and displayed formulae of an organic molecule given its molecular formula
🎯 Learning Objectives
- deduce the molecular formula from a displayed or structural formula
- deduce the empirical formula given the molecular formula
- write possible molecular formulae and also structural formulae given the empirical formula
- calculate the empirical and molecular formula of an organic molecule from data.
🔑 Key Words
- empirical formula: gives the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms of each element present in a compound. It can be worked out from experimental data
- molecular formula: shows the actual number of each type of atom present in a molecule (covalent compound) or formula unit (ionic compound)
Lesson 72Types of Organic Reactions→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 264–265, 271, 279, 280 and 283
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 understand how to classify reactions of organic compounds as substitution, addition and combustion, knowledge of reaction mechanisms is not required
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand what a substitution reaction is
- understand what an addition reaction is
- understand what a combustion reaction is
- identify the reaction type from given information.
🔑 Key Words
- addition: a chemical reaction in which one molecule adds to another without taking anything away, to form a single product (for example, when alkenes react with halogens and the halogen atoms are added onto the alkene molecule)
- substitution: a chemical reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by a different atom or group of atoms (for example, when alkanes react with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet light and the hydrogen atoms in the alkanes are replaced by halogen atoms)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
Lesson 73Crude Oil→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 268–270
📚 Specification Points
- 4.7 know that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons
- 4.8 describe how the industrial process of fractional distillation separates crude oil into fractions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that crude oil is a raw material in limited supply
- state that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules
- describe how fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into fractions
- explain that fractions are still mixtures.
🔑 Key Words
- crude oil: formed from the remains of living organisms when their soft tissue was gradually changed by high temperatures and pressures into a thick, black oil; it is a mixture of hydrocarbons
- fractions: groups of compounds collected when a mixture is separated by fractional distillation
- viscous: a liquid that is resistant to flow
- volatile: a substance that evaporates easily
Lesson 75Hydrocarbons as Fuels→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 270–271, 279
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11 know that a fuel is a substance that, when burned, releases heat energy
- 4.12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
- 4.13 understand why carbon monoxide is poisonous, in terms of its effect on the capacity of blood to transport oxygen (references to haemoglobin are not required)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the meaning of the term ‘fuel’
- state that full (complete) combustion of hydrocarbons releases carbon dioxide and water
- state the conditions leading to incomplete combustion
- explain why carbon monoxide forms in incomplete combustion
- explain why carbon monoxide is toxic.
🔑 Key Words
- complete combustion: occurs when a hydrocarbon burns in sufficient oxygen; carbon dioxide and water are formed as products
- incomplete combustion: occurs when a hydrocarbon burns in insufficient oxygen; water is still formed as a product, but carbon monoxide and carbon are formed instead of carbon dioxide
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection. Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is harmful and irritating to the eyes and skin.
- • Cobalt chloride is toxic: use forceps to handle the dry cobalt chloride paper, if this is used.
- • Ask students questions about each of the parts of the apparatus: Why is a glass funnel used? (Answer: Plastic would melt; traps any soot produced.) What is being tested for in the U-shaped tube? (Answer: Water vapour) Why is iced water needed around the U-shaped tube? (Answer: To cool the water vapour so it becomes water; it makes it easier for the anhydrous copper sulfate to become hydrated copper sulfate as the vapour might pass through too quickly to cause any change in the anhydrous copper sulfate.) What is the expected colour change of anhydrous copper sulfate? (Answer: It is white when copper sulfate is in the anhydrous form and becomes hydrated blue copper sulfate if there is any water present.) What is being tested for with the limewater? (Answer: Carbon dioxide) What is the positive result for carbon dioxide with the limewater? (Answer: The limewater turns milky white/cloudy.) Discuss the hazard of carbon monoxide and the problems of gas and soot from appliances. (Answer: If insufficient oxygen is present, then soot will form on objects. Soot can block pipes carrying waste gases from an appliance, blacken buildings and cause breathing problems; carbon monoxide, which is toxic, can be produced; it combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells preventing oxygen from combining with the haemoglobin; so reduces amount of oxygen carried in the bloodstream; causing affected people to feel sleepy or drowsy; this can lead to unconsciousness and even death.)
Lesson 76Acid Rain→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 273
📚 Specification Points
- 4.14 know that, in car engines, the temperature reached is high enough to allow nitrogen and oxygen from air to react, forming oxides of nitrogen
- 4.15 explain how the combustion of some impurities in hydrocarbon fuels results in the formation of sulfur dioxide
- 4.16 understand how sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen contribute to acid rain
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why nitrogen is inert, but that it will react in an engine
- explain how sulfur dioxide can be formed during combustion
- state how sulfur and nitrogen oxides form acid rain
- describe some of the consequences of acid rain.
🔑 Key Words
- acid rain: rain which has a pH of less than about 5.6; it is caused when water and oxygen in the atmosphere react with sulfur dioxide to produce sulfuric acid or with various oxides of nitrogen, NOx, to give nitric acid
- impurities: unwanted substances found mixed into a useful substance
- pollutant: a substance that harms living organisms when released into the environment
- scrubbing: removing pollutant gases from the gases produced in a combustion reaction
- weathering: when rocks are broken up by physical, chemical or biological processes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Carry out the demonstration in a fume cupboard or ensure adequate ventilation in the laboratory.
- • Sulfur dioxide gas is toxic and has a choking smell. It can also trigger asthma attacks – avoid excessive escape from the gas jar.
- • OPTIONAL: If the demonstration cannot be carried out, display the Image: Burning sulfur .
- • Wear eye protection as 0.5 mol/dm³ sulfuric acid and 0.4 mol/dm³ nitric acid are irritants.
- • Take care not to jam the samples in the test tube.
- • To avoid blocking the sinks, pour the used contents of the test tubes into a sieve and bowl.
Lesson 77Alkanes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 277–279
📚 Specification Points
- 4.19 know the general formula for alkanes
- 4.20 explain why alkanes are classified as saturated hydrocarbons
- 4.21 understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkanes with up to five carbon atoms in the molecule, and to name the unbranched-chain isomers
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the general formula of the alkane homologous series
- deduce the molecular formula of an alkane using the general formula
- draw all isomers of alkanes up to five carbon atoms
- recognise unbranched alkanes from the molecular, structural or displayed formulae.
🔑 Key Words
- functional group: an atom or a group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a compound
- homologous series: a series of compounds with similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group; each member differs from the next by –CH2– and members show a gradual change in properties
Lesson 78Reactions of Alkanes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 279–280
📚 Specification Points
- 4.12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
- 4.22 describe the reactions of alkanes with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet radiation, limited to mono-substitution (knowledge of reaction mechanisms is not required)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand that alkanes can fully combust in air
- describe when incomplete combustion occurs
- understand the conditions for the reaction of alkanes with halogens
- write equations for the substitution reactions of alkanes.
🔑 Key Words
- complete combustion: the process of a hydrocarbon burning in sufficient oxygen, to produce only carbon dioxide and water as products
- incomplete combustion: the process of a hydrocarbon burning in insufficient oxygen, to produce carbon monoxide or carbon instead of carbon dioxide, as well as water
- mono-substitution: a substitution reaction in which only one hydrogen atom in an alkane is replaced by a halogen atom
- soot: black powder consisting largely of carbon
- ultraviolet radiation: the part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum that has wavelengths between those of visible light and X-rays, which is invisible to the human eye
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas that prevents the transport of oxygen around the
- Carbon monoxide is toxic, meaning it can kill people.
- Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas produced during
Lesson 79Cracking→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 273–275 and 277–279
📚 Specification Points
- 4.17 describe how long-chain alkanes are converted to alkenes and shorter-chain alkanes by catalytic cracking (using silica or alumina as the catalyst and a temperature in the range of 600–700 °C)
- 4.18 explain why cracking is necessary, in terms of the balance between supply and demand for different fractions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why there is a surplus of some fractions and a shortage of others
- explain why cracking is economically beneficial
- describe how cracking is carried out
- describe the products of cracking and their uses
- write equations for cracking reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- cracking: a process in which long-chain alkanes are converted to alkenes and shorter-chain alkanes; it is carried out using silica or alumina as a catalyst at a temperature of 600–700 °C
- polymer: a large molecule made when many small molecules (monomers) join together; it consists of many repeating units
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Paraffin oil and its products are highly flammable.
- • Bromine water is harmful.
- • Ensure lab is well ventilated.
- • If the delivery tube is left in the water, ‘suck-back’ will occur and cold water will damage the hot apparatus.
Lesson 81Core Practical – Heat Changes In Reactions→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 207, 209 and 216–217
Lab Book: Pages 24, 29–30
📚 Specification Points
- 3.1 know that chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out are described as exothermic, and those in which heat energy is taken in are described as endothermic
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as dissolving
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • salts dissolving in water
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that most reactions release heat energy, and these are called exothermic reactions
- state that some reactions absorb heat energy, and these are called endothermic reactions
- state that temperature change is used to identify these reaction types
- describe how heat changes in solution may be determined experimentally.
🔑 Key Words
- calorimetry: measuring the heat given out or taken in by a chemical reaction
- endothermic: reactions in which heat energy is taken in from the surroundings
- enthalpy change: the amount of energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction; it has the symbol ∆H
- exothermic: reactions in which heat energy is given out to the surroundings
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Ammonium chloride is harmful. Avoid contact with your skin.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 209–211 and 217–219
Lab Book: Pages 24–28
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as neutralisation
- 3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
- 3.4 calculate the molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy change, Q
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • neutralisation reactions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate a heat change from temperature change data
- calculate the molar enthalpy change from the heat change
- describe the practical technique used to measure temperature change for neutralisation reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- enthalpy change: the amount of heat energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction; it is the difference between the energy of products and the energy of the reactants
- specific heat capacity: the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 °C
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • 1.0 mol/dm³ sodium hydroxide is corrosive and very damaging to eyes.
- • Care is needed with solutions of acid. Wash off splashes immediately.
- • Wear eye protection and disposable gloves.
- • Take care with the hot, and cold, solutions.
- • Both reactions produce hydrochloric acid, which is corrosive.
- • It may help if students are told that the water, thermometer and boiling tube are part of the surroundings and that energy is transferred from or to the dissolving substance by heating.
Lesson 83Core Practical – Energy Level Diagrams→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 209–210 and 215–216
Lab Book: Pages 24, 31–33
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as displacement
- 3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
- 3.4 calculate the molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy change, Q
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • displacement reactions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the practical technique to measure temperature change for displacement reactions
- state that in exothermic reactions the products contain less energy than the reactants
- state that in endothermic reactions the products contain more energy than the reactants
- draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- exothermic reaction: a reaction that transfers energy to the surroundings, causing a temperature increase
- endothermic reaction: a reaction that takes in energy from the surroundings, causing a temperature decrease
- energy level diagram: a diagram showing the relative energy levels of reactants and products
- calorimetry: measuring the heat energy change during a chemical reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Copper(II) sulfate is harmful and an irritant.
- • Zinc powder is flammable and hazardous to the environment.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 211–214
Lab Book: Pages 24, 34–36
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as combustion
- 3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
- 3.4 calculate the molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy change, Q
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • combustion reactions.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a practical technique to measure temperature change for combustion reactions
- explain why a different technique is needed to measure the heat change in a combustion reaction
- explain why the heat change measured is inaccurate.
🔑 Key Words
- enthalpy change: the amount of energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction; it has the symbol ∆H
- exothermic: reactions in which heat energy is given out to the surroundings
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • All alcohols are flammable: handle with care and keep the tops on burners when not in use.
Lesson 87Reversible Reactions→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 240–241
📚 Specification Points
- 3.17 know that some reactions are reversible, and this is indicated by the symbol ⇌ in equations
- 3.18 describe reversible reactions such as the dehydration of hydrated copper(II) sulfate and the effect of heat on ammonium chloride
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that reversible reactions are when the products react to produce the original reactants
- describe the reversible reactions of dehydration and hydration of copper(II) sulfate
- describe the observations of the reversible thermal decomposition of ammonium chloride.
🔑 Key Words
- reversible reaction: a reaction that can proceed in both the forward and backward directions
- equilibrium: the state in a reversible reaction when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction
- hydrated: containing water molecules within the crystal structure
- anhydrous: without water of crystallisation
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ammonium chloride is an irritant, wash it off your skin with plenty of water.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Avoid getting copper(II) sulfate on your skin and wash your hands after the experiment.
- • Copper(II) sulfate(VI)-5-water (powdered) is harmful. It is harmful if swallowed (especially saturated solutions for crystal growing); the solid may irritate the eyes and skin.
- • Do not heat copper(II) sulfate strongly as it can decompose into sulfur oxides, which are toxic. Use a spirit burner if possible.
- • Addition of water to anhydrous (white) copper(II) sulfate is exothermic. Do NOT hold the tube.
Lesson 92Alkenes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 282–283
📚 Specification Points
- 4.23 know that alkenes contain the functional group >C=C<
- 4.24 know the general formula for alkenes
- 4.25 explain why alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons
- 4.26 understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkenes with up to four carbon atoms in the molecule, and name the unbranched-chain isomers (knowledge of cis/trans or E/Z notation is not required)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons
- identify an alkene from the molecular formula
- draw the structural and displayed formulae of unbranched alkenes.
🔑 Key Words
- alkene: an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C)
- unsaturated: a molecule that contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond
- general formula: a formula that represents any member of a homologous series; for alkenes it is CₙH₂ₙ
- functional group: the reactive part of a molecule; in alkenes this is the C=C double bond
Lesson 93Reactions of Alkenes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 283–284
📚 Specification Points
- 4.12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
- 4.27 describe the reactions of alkenes with bromine to produce dibromoalkanes
- 4.28 describe how bromine water can be used to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that alkenes can combust in air
- state that alkanes cannot undergo addition reactions, but alkenes can
- write equations, including using structural formulae, for addition reactions
- describe how to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene.
🔑 Key Words
- addition reaction: a reaction in which atoms are added across a double bond in an unsaturated molecule
- dibromoalkane: the product formed when bromine reacts with an alkene
- bromine water test: a test to distinguish between alkanes and alkenes; alkenes decolourise bromine water
- combustion: a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing heat and light
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Cyclohexane and cyclohexene are highly flammable; there must not be any naked flames in the laboratory.
- • These chemicals are also harmful. Bromine water is harmful at this concentration (0.02 mol/dm³ ).
Lesson 105Addition Polymers→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 302–307
📚 Specification Points
- 4.44 know that an addition polymer is formed by joining up many small molecules called monomers
- 4.45 understand how to draw the repeat unit of an addition polymer, including poly(ethene), poly(propene), poly(chloroethene) and poly(tetrafluoroethene)
- 4.46 understand how to deduce the structure of a monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer and vice versa
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that a polymer is a long-chain molecule consisting of repeating units, called monomers
- explain how a polymer can be formed from many alkene monomers
- state that alkenes form polymers by addition polymerisation
- identify the monomer of a polymer and vice-versa.
🔑 Key Words
- addition polymerisation: a type of polymerisation in which the monomers add on to each other and no small molecules are eliminated
- monomers: molecules that can join to form a polymer
- polymer: a large molecule made when many small molecules (monomers) join together
- polymerisation: the joining of lots of small molecules (monomers) to make one big molecule (polymer)
Lesson 106Polymer Disposal→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 307–308
📚 Specification Points
- 4.47 explain problems in the disposal of addition polymers, including: • their inertness and inability to biodegrade • the production of toxic gases when they are burned
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the problems of addition polymer disposal that are caused by their inertness and inability to biodegrade
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of recycling addition polymers
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of disposing of addition polymers in landfill
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of the incineration of addition polymers.
🔑 Key Words
- biodegradable: able to be broken down by bacteria or fungi in the environment
- incinerate: the burning of waste in a furnace; incinerators can capture waste gases or use the heat produced to generate electricity
- inert: unreactive
- landfill: an area of land used as a location to dispose of waste materials
- non-biodegradable: unable to be broken down by bacteria or fungi in the environment
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- an area of land used as a location to dispose of
- The ash produced can be toxic so still needs to be disposed of in landfill sites
- Releases harmful and toxic gases.
- an area of land used as a location to dispose of waste materials
- Plastics are non-biodegradable, so they do not rot and are difficult to dispose of.
Lesson 108Condensation Polymer Disposal→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 307–310
📚 Specification Points
- 4.47 explain problems in the disposal of addition polymers, including: • their inertness and inability to biodegrade • the production of toxic gases when they are burned
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why some polymers are biodegradable
- state the uses that can be made of biodegradable polymers and their limitations
- state the advantages of a biodegradable polymer
- evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of recycling polymers.
🔑 Key Words
- biodegradable: able to be broken down by living organisms such as bacteria
- biopolyester: a polyester that is biodegradable
- addition polymer: a polymer formed from unsaturated monomers without the loss of any atoms
- inert: chemically unreactive; difficult to break down
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- too dangerous to incinerate.
- These will need to be disposed of at landfill sites.
🔮 Physics
Lesson 1Distance–Time Graphs→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 4–6 and 15–16
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/(second)2 (m/s2), newton (N), second (s) and newton/kilogram (N/kg)
- 1.3 plot and explain distance–time graphs
- 1.4 know and use the relationship between average speed, distance moved and time taken: average speed = (distance moved)/(time taken)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use distance–time graphs to analyse the motion of an object
- sketch distance–time graphs for the motion of an object
- use the average speed equation to calculate speed, distance or time taken.
🔑 Key Words
- accelerating: getting faster
- acceleration: the rate of change of increasing velocity
- average speed = \(\frac{\mathrm{distance}\;\mathrm{moved}}{\mathrm{time}\;\mathrm{taken}}\)
- decelerating: getting slower
- deceleration: the rate of change of decreasing velocity
- distance–time graph: a graph showing distance travelled at certain intervals of time
- gradient: the slope of a line or surface
Lesson 2Investigating Motion→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 2–8
Lab Book: Pages 2–5
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the motion of a toy car
- analyse data and describe motion.
🔑 Key Words
- anomalous result: a result that does not fit the pattern, also called an anomaly
- hypothesis: this is an idea about how something works that can be tested with experiments
- mean: the average value calculated when all the numbers are added together and divided by the number of readings
- parallax error: type of error that occurs when your eye is not directly in front of or above the measuring instrument, but at an angle
- perpendicular: at right angles/at 90°
- prediction: this describes what will happen in the experiment if the hypothesis is correct
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students need to take a large number of measurements to complete this practical. There are two ways to do this. You need to select the option based on class size and time available: Option 1: Assign specific measurements to groups of students, as explained below, and then pool the results to make a whole-class results table. If you choose this option, you’ll have to specify the starting height and all the subsequent values for the height (found before the lesson starts). The maximum height should not exceed 30 cm. Option 2: Alternatively, let each group take all the measurements. This option is likely to take up the remainder of the lesson, meaning that the analysis and evaluation work in Task 2 and the End-of-lesson activity may need to take place in a second session. If you choose this option, you will have to specify the starting height for students, which you would have to find before the start of the lesson according to the instructions in the practical’s method. You can then either choose to specify all subsequent values as well, or let students choose their own values. If that’s the case, tell students: You’ll be choosing your own values for the height increase, but the maximum height should not exceed 30 cm since this can cause the car to reach relatively high speeds and cause damage .
Lesson 3Identifying Forces→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 18–20, 26 and 34
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N), second (s) and newton/kilogram (N/kg)
- 1.12 identify different types of force such as gravitational or electrostatic
- 1.13 understand how vector quantities differ from scalar quantities
- 1.14 understand that force is a vector quantity
- 1.16 know that friction is a force that opposes motion
- 1.18 know and use the relationship between weight, mass and gravitational field strength: weight = mass × gravitational field strength W = m × g
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the features of vectors and scalars
- give examples of vector and scalar quantities
- identify different types of force
- define and calculate weight.
🔑 Key Words
- drag or air resistance: a force between a moving object and the fluid (liquid or gas) in which it is moving
- friction: a force between two solid surfaces trying to move across each other that tries to stop movement happening
- gravitational field strength (g): the size of the effect of gravity acting on an object (measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg))
- mass: the amount of matter in a body (measured in kilograms (kg))
- newton (N): the unit of measurement for force
- normal reaction force: a force that acts when two objects are in contact with one another to prevent one object passing through the other
- scalar: a quantity with size only
- upthrust: the upwards force on a body when it displaces fluid
- vector: a quantity with size and direction
- weight: the force of gravity acting on a body (measured in newtons (N))
- weight = mass × gravitational field strength or W = mg
Lesson 4Resultant Forces→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 20–22
📚 Specification Points
- 1.11 describe the effects of forces between bodies such as changes in speed, shape and direction
- 1.15 calculate the resultant force of forces that act along a line
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define and calculate resultant forces
- describe the effects of forces on objects.
🔑 Key Words
- resultant force: the single force that has the same effect as the combination of all the forces acting on an object
Lesson 67Resultant Forces and Acceleration→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 28–31 and 35–37
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and second (s)
- 1.17 know and use the relationship between unbalanced force, mass and acceleration: force = mass x acceleration; F=m×a
- 1.21 describe the forces acting on falling objects (and explain why falling objects reach terminal velocity)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall and use the relationship: resultant force = mass × acceleration
- explain why falling objects reach terminal velocity.
🔑 Key Words
- resultant force: the single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting on an object combined
- acceleration: the rate of change of velocity
- Newton's second law: force = mass × acceleration (F = ma)
- terminal velocity: the constant speed reached when the driving force equals the resistive forces
Lesson 5Stretching Materials 1→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 23–25
Lab Book: Pages 10–13
📚 Specification Points
- 1.22 practical: investigate how extension varies with applied force for helical springs, metal wires and rubber bands
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the relationship between the force applied to a material and its extension.
🔑 Key Words
- dependent variable: the variable that changes because of the change to the independent variable
- elastic deformation: the spring will regain its original shape when the force is removed
- extension: current length − original length
- independent variable: the variable you manipulate/change during an experiment
- parallax error: type of error that occurs when the eye is at an angle to the measurement
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should take care not to drop the masses.
- • Students should wear shoes with closed toes and heels to protect their feet in case they drop the masses.
- • Before students start, remind them: You must always wear your eye protection if your spring is loaded .
- • Ask students to carry out the practical following the method on p. 10 of the Lab Book . Students should work in pairs, or groups of three.
- • It is advisable to fix the base of the clamp stand to the bench with a G-clamp, so it doesn't topple over.
- • Students should then answer Q2–4 on pp. 11–12 of the Lab Book . For Q4 , they will use their results to plot a graph . Lab Book answers
Lesson 6Stretching Materials 2→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 23–25 and 27
📚 Specification Points
- 1.22 practical: investigate how extension varies with applied force for helical springs, metal wires and rubber bands
- 1.23 know that the initial linear region of a force–extension graph is associated with Hooke's law
- 1.24 describe elastic behaviour as the ability of a material to recover its original shape after the forces causing deformation have been removed
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify and describe elastic and inelastic behaviour of materials
- link the linear region of a force–extension graph to Hooke’s law.
🔑 Key Words
- deformation: a change in the length/dimensions of a body
- elastic limit: the point beyond which a material will not return to its original shape
- elastic material: one that returns to its original size when the force stretching it is removed
- Hooke’s law: states that the extension is directly proportional to the applied force
- limit of proportionality: the point up to which extension is proportional to the applied force
- plastic material: one that does not return to its original size when the force stretching it is removed
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ensure that students wear eye protection in case the metal wire or spring snap, to protect their eyes. Instruct students to avoid applying large forces to the materials provided.
Lesson 64Velocity–Time Graphs→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 9–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2) and second (s)
- 1.6 know and use the relationship between acceleration, change in velocity and time taken: acceleration=(change in velocity)/(time taken) a=((v-u))/t
- 1.7 plot and explain velocity–time graphs
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use velocity–time graphs to analyse the motion of an object
- use the relationship: acceleration = change in velocity time taken .
🔑 Key Words
- velocity: the speed of an object in a particular direction, measured in m/s
- acceleration: the rate of change of velocity, a = v − u t
- velocity–time graph: a graph used to show the change in velocity of an object over a period of time
Lesson 65Calculations Using Velocity–Time Graphs→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 9–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2) and second (s)
- 1.8 determine acceleration from the gradient of a velocity–time graph
- 1.9 determine the distance travelled from the area between a velocity–time graph and the time axis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- determine acceleration from the gradient of a velocity–time graph
- calculate distance travelled from the area under a velocity–time graph
- interpret velocity–time graphs for objects with changing velocity
🔑 Key Words
- velocity–time graph: a graph used to show the change in velocity of an object over a period of time
- acceleration: the rate of change of velocity, a = v − u t
Lesson 69The Suvat Equations→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 14–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.6 know and use the relationship between acceleration, change in velocity and time taken: acceleration=(change in velocity)/(time taken) a=((v-u))/t
- 1.10 use the relationship between final speed, initial speed, acceleration and distance moved: (final speed)2 = (initial speed)2 + (2 x acceleration x distance moved) v2=u2+(2×a×s)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the relationship \({(\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2={(\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2+(2\times\mathrm{acceleration}\times\mathrm{distance}\;\mathrm{moved})\) 2 \(=\) (initial speed)2 \(+\) (2 \(\times\) acceleration \(\times\) distance moved) -->
- use the relationship \(\mathrm {acceleration}=\frac{\mathrm{change}\;\mathrm{in}\;\mathrm{velocity}}{\text{time taken}}\) or \(\mathrm{acceleration}=\frac{\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm{velocity}-\;\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm{velocity}}{\text{time taken}}\)
🔑 Key Words
- acceleration = change   in   velocity time   taken
- acceleration  = final   velocity - initial   velocity time   taken \(a=\frac{v-u}t\)
- \({(\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2={(\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2+(2\times\mathrm{acceleration}\times\mathrm{distance}\;\mathrm{moved})\) 2 \(=\) (initial speed)2 \(+\) (2 \(\times\) acceleration \(\times\) distance moved) --> \(v^2=u^2+\left(2\times a\times s\right)\)
Lesson 70On the Road→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 32–33
📚 Specification Points
- 1.19 know that the stopping distance of a vehicle is made up of the sum of the thinking distance and the braking distance
- 1.20 describe the factors affecting vehicle stopping distance, including speed, mass, road condition and reaction time
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that the stopping distance of a vehicle is made up of the sum of the thinking distance and the braking distance
- describe the factors affecting vehicle stopping distance, including speed, mass, road condition and reaction time.
🔑 Key Words
- braking distance: the distance travelled by the car while the brakes are applied
- reaction time: the time taken for a driver to react to a hazard
- thinking distance: the distance travelled by the car while the driver reacts to a hazard
- stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for the practical.
Lesson 10Energy Stores and Pathways→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 132–135 and 137
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following unit: joule (J)
- 4.2 describe energy transfers involving energy stores: • Energy stores: chemical, kinetic, gravitational, elastic, thermal, magnetic, electrostatic, nuclear • Energy transfers: mechanically, electrically, by heating, by radiation (light and sound)
- 4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and give examples of the eight energy stores
- know and give examples of the four energy pathways
- describe energy transfers in everyday situations in terms of stores and pathways.
🔑 Key Words
- energy: a property of a system used to describe and calculate changes – measured in joules, J
- energy pathway: a process, such as a force moving an object, which transfers energy between different stores
- energy store: an object, or system of objects, in which energy is stored – there are eight different ways in which energy is stored
- energy transfer: a description of the changes in energy stores and the pathways that cause those changes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Stand clear of swinging objects. Ensure masses are securely attached.
Lesson 90Kinetic Energy→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 153–155
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), joule (J), metre (m), metre/second (m/s) metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N), second (s) and watt (W)
- 4.14 know and use the relationship: KE = ½ × m × v2
- 4.15 understand how conservation of energy produces a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy and work
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship: kinetic energy = 1 2 × mass × speed2
- understand how conservation of energy produces a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy and work.
🔑 Key Words
- kinetic energy: the energy an object has due to its motion
- gravitational potential energy: the energy an object has due to its height above the ground
- conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred between stores
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Stand clear of swinging objects. Ensure masses are securely attached.
Lesson 89Work and Energy Transfer→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 150–153
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11 know and use the relationship between work done, force and distance moved in the direction of the force: work done = force × distance moved, W=F×d
- 4.12 know that work done is equal to energy transferred
- 4.13 know and use the relationship between gravitational potential energy, mass, gravitational field strength, and height: gravitational potential energy = mass x gravitational field strength x height, GPE=m×g×h
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship: work done = force × distance moved
- know that work done is equal to energy transferred
- know and use the relationship:gravitational potential energy (GPE) = mass × gravitational field strength × height.
🔑 Key Words
- gravitational potential energy = mass × gravitational field strength × height (\(GPE = m\;×\;g\;×\;h\))
- weight = mass × gravitational field strength (\(W = m\;×\;g\))
- work done: the work done by a force is the energy transferred by that force
- work done = force × distance moved (\(W = F\;×\;d\))
Lesson 91Power→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 155–156 and 63–65
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11 know and use the relationship between work done, force and distance moved in the direction of the force: work done = force × distance moved, W=F×d
- 4.14 know and use the relationship: KE = ½ × m × v2
- 4.16 describe power as the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of doing work
- 4.17 use the relationship between power, work done (energy transferred) and time taken: power = work done/time taken
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe power as the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of doing work and use the relationship: \(\text{power = }\frac{\text{work done}}{\text{time taken}}\)
- combine a range of equations involving power and work done to answer questions.
🔑 Key Words
- power: the rate of doing work or transferring energy
- power \({ = }\frac{\text{work done}}{\text{time taken}}\) \({(P = }\frac{{W}}{{t}})\)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- hazard and pushes the brakes, which produce a frictional
Lesson 11Conservation of Energy and Efficiency→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 135–137
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following unit: joule (J)
- 4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy
- 4.4 know and use the relationship between efficiency, useful energy output and total energy input: efficiency=(useful energy output)/(total energy input)×100%
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and apply the principle of conservation of energy
- explain and calculate efficiency in energy transfers.
🔑 Key Words
- closed system: where there are no outside influences, no external forces or external heating effects
- efficiency equation:
- principle of conservation of energy: the principle of conservation of energy states that energy is not created or destroyed in any process
- useful energy: the energy which is transferred to stores we want
- wasted energy: the energy which is transferred to stores we do not want
Lesson 12Sankey Diagrams and Energy Transfers→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 136–138
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following unit: joule (J)
- 4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy
- 4.4 know and use the relationship between efficiency, useful energy output and total energy input: efficiency=(useful energy output)/(total energy input)×100%
- 4.5 describe a variety of everyday and scientific devices and situations, explaining transfer the input energy in terms of the above relationship, including their representation by Sankey diagrams
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the useful energy output and wasted energy in everyday situations
- use Sankey diagrams
- draw Sankey diagrams.
🔑 Key Words
- Sankey diagram: a diagram which shows the flow of energy in an energy transfer.
Lesson 85Conduction→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 139–140
Lab Book: Pages 30–31
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction, convection and radiation
- 4.9 practical: investigate thermal energy transfer by conduction, convection and radiation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction
- explain why metals are better thermal conductors than non-metals
- describe simple demonstrations of different rates of thermal conduction in metals and non-metals.
🔑 Key Words
- conduction: the main process of thermal energy transfer in solids
- thermal conductor: a material which easily transfers thermal energy by conduction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care with sharp drawing pins.
Lesson 86Convection Currents→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 140–144
Lab Book: Pages 32–33
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction, convection and radiation
- 4.7 explain the role of convection in everyday phenomena
- 4.9 practical: investigate thermal energy transfer by conduction, convection and radiation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the process of convection
- explain the role of convection in everyday phenomena.
🔑 Key Words
- convection: a process which causes thermal energy to be transferred in fluids
- convection current: the movement of material in a fluid due to density changes
- fluid: a liquid or gas
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • The hot water may cause burns. make sure you stand up for the investigation.
- • Potassium manganate(VII) crystals can cause severe irritation or burns on the skin. Never handle the crystals directly – always use tweezers.
Lesson 87Radiation→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 142–143
Lab Book: Pages 34–36
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction, convection and radiation
- 4.8 explain how emission and absorption of radiation are related to surface and temperature
- 4.9 practical: investigate thermal energy transfer by conduction, convection and radiation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by radiation
- explain how the rates of emission and absorption of radiation by different materials are used to design everyday objects.
🔑 Key Words
- absorbing: taking in radiation, which has the effect of increasing temperature
- emitting: giving out radiation, which has the effect of decreasing temperature
- radiation: electromagnetic waves which transfer energy (as opposed to nuclear radiation emitted from atoms)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot water.
Lesson 88Reducing Unwanted Energy Transfers→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 145–147
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 describe how thermal energy transfer may take place by conduction, convection and radiation
- 4.7 explain the role of convection in everyday phenomena
- 4.10 explain ways of reducing unwanted energy transfer, such as insulation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- give examples of situations in which there are unwanted energy transfers
- explain how unwanted energy transfers can be reduced, such as by using insulation.
🔑 Key Words
- aerodynamic: designed to reduce air resistance
- conduction: the main process of thermal energy transfer in solids
- convection: a process which causes thermal energy to be transferred in fluids
- insulator: a material that greatly reduces the transfer of thermal energy to the surroundings
- lubricant: a substance like oil or grease which is used to allow moving parts to move smoothly
- radiation: electromagnetic waves which transfer energy (as opposed to nuclear radiation emitted from atoms)
Lesson 13Electrical Charge and Current→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 67–69 and 73–74
📚 Specification Points
- 2.12 know that lamps and LEDs can be used to indicate the presence of a current in a circuit
- 2.14 know that current is the rate of flow of charge
- 2.15 know and use the relationship between charge, current and time: charge = current × time Q = I × t
- 2.16 know that electric current in solid metallic conductors is a flow of negatively charged electrons
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the difference between charge and current
- describe current as a flow of charge
- know and use the relationship: charge = current × time.
🔑 Key Words
- ammeter: an instrument to measure electric current
- ampere (A): the unit of electric current
- conductor: a material that can carry an electric current
- coulomb (C): the unit of electric charge
- electric charge (Q): a property some particles or objects have; charge can be either positive or negative charge = current × time (Q = I × t )
- electric current (I): the rate of flow of electric charge
- electrons: the negatively charged particles responsible for electric currents in metals
- insulator: a material that cannot carry an electric current
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with electrical equipment. Do not connect circuits to mains. Switch off power before changing connections.
Lesson 15Current and Voltage→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 69–74
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C), joule (J), ohm (Ω), second (s) and volt (V)
- 2.8 understand how the current in a series circuit depends on the applied voltage and the number and nature of other components
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand current in simple series circuits
- understand qualitatively the effect on current of changing the applied voltage
- understand that when more resistors are added to a series circuit the current decreases.
🔑 Key Words
- ammeter: an instrument used to measure electric current
- ampere (A): the unit of electric current
- electric current (I ): the rate of flow of electric charge
- ohm (Ω): the unit of electrical resistance
- resistance: the difficulty current experiences in a circuit
- resistor: a component designed to reduce the current in a circuit
- voltage (V ): the amount of energy carried by each unit of charge from a cell/battery or power supply to the circuit components
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with electrical equipment. Do not connect circuits to mains. Switch off power before changing connections.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 80–83
📚 Specification Points
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
- 2.11 describe the qualitative variation of resistance of light-dependent resistors (LDRs) with illumination and thermistors with temperature
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate how the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature
- investigate how the resistance of a light-dependent resistor (LDR) varies with light intensity (brightness)
- plot graphs showing how resistance varies with an external factor.
🔑 Key Words
- light-dependent resistor (LDR): a circuit component that changes resistance depending on the brightness of the light falling on it
- ohm (Ω): the unit of electrical resistance
- resistance: the difficulty current experiences in a circuit
- resistor: a component designed to reduce the current in a circuit
- semiconductor: a material that has high electrical resistance in some conditions but will conduct electricity in others
- thermistor: a circuit component that changes resistance depending on its temperature
Lesson 17Changing Resistance and Alternating Current→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 65 and 80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.6 know the difference between mains electricity being alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.) being supplied by a cell or battery
- 2.11 describe the qualitative variation of resistance of light-dependent resistors (LDRs) with illumination and thermistors with temperature
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- analyse graphs of resistance for thermistors and light-dependent resistors
- describe the difference between alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.)
- compare oscilloscope traces for a.c. and d.c.
🔑 Key Words
- alternating current (a.c.): a current that reverses direction periodically – many times a second
- direct current (d.c.): a current that only travels in one direction
- light-dependent resistor (LDR): a circuit component that changes resistance depending on the brightness of the light falling on it
- thermistor: a circuit component that changes resistance depending on its temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not attempt to show mains voltages. While many oscilloscopes can handle these, they pose an unnecessary risk of electrocution in this demonstration.
- • Students do not need to be able to operate the oscilloscope or understand the details of its controls. However, they should be able to look at the screen and decide if a signal is a.c. or d.c.
Lesson 18Current, Voltage and Resistance→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–76 and 83
📚 Specification Points
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current × resistance V = I × R
🎯 Learning Objectives
- form the equation which relates current, voltage and resistance
- use the relationship voltage = current × resistance in a variety of contexts
- measure resistance in practical circuits using an ammeter and a voltmeter.
🔑 Key Words
- ampere (A): the unit of electric current
- electric current (I): the rate of flow of electric charge
- ohm (Ω): the unit of electrical resistance
- resistance (R): the difficulty current experiences in a circuit
- volt (V): the unit for voltage
- voltage (V): the amount of energy carried by each unit of charge from a cell/battery or power supply to the circuit components
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ensure that you use low voltages to keep any currents below 1 A.
Lesson 19Current–Voltage Characteristics→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 77–78
📚 Specification Points
- 2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to investigate this experimentally
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current × resistance V = I × R
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the resistance of components using the relationship voltage = current × resistance
- plan an investigation of how current varies with applied voltage for a wire and a resistor
- plot current–voltage graphs for a wire and a resistor
- describe the relationship between current and voltage for a wire and resistor.
🔑 Key Words
- ammeter: a device used to measure current in a circuit
- current–voltage characteristics graph: a graph showing the relationship between the current and voltage for a component
- ohmic conductor: a device where the resistance does not change with the current (as long as external conditions do not change)
- variable resistor: a resistor with changeable resistance which can be used to change the resistance in a circuit
- voltmeter: a device used for measuring voltages in a circuit
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Use low voltages to keep any currents below 1 A.
- • Do not touch the wire until it has cooled down.
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a table for analysis. Display the table template in the Slideshow: Results table . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books.
Lesson 20Investigating Filament Lamps and Diodes→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 77–78
📚 Specification Points
- 2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to investigate this experimentally
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current × resistance V = I × R
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the resistance of components using the relationship voltage = current × resistance
- plan an investigation of how current varies with applied voltage for a filament lamp and a diode
- plot current–voltage graphs for a filament lamp and a diode
- describe the relationship between current and voltage for a filament lamp and a diode.
🔑 Key Words
- conventional current: charge flow in a circuit from positive terminal to negative terminal
- diode: an electrical component that allows the flow of current in only one direction
- filament lamp: a lamp in which the light source is a fine electrical conductor heated by the passage of current
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The lamp will become hot, so do not touch it until it has time to cool down.
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a table for analysis. Display the table template on the slideshow. Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Note that their results table will need additional rows depending on the number of measurements made. Slideshow: Results table 1
- • Remind students that Ohm’s law states: The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it as long as the physical conditions (e.g. temperature) remain the same.
Lesson 74Series Circuits→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 72–73
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 explain why a series or parallel circuit is more appropriate for particular applications, including domestic lighting
- 2.8 understand how the current in a series circuit depends on the applied voltage and the number and nature of other components
- 2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to investigate this experimentally
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current x resistance (V = I x R)
- 2.19 calculate the currents, voltages and resistances of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the currents of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
- calculate the voltages of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
- calculate the resistances of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
- explain why a series circuit is more appropriate for some applications.
🔑 Key Words
- resistance equation: resistance = voltage current R = V I
- series circuit: a series of components ‘one after the other’ where there is only one current path
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Currents should always be kept below 0.5 A so that the resistors do not overheat.
- • Students should work in pairs or small groups of three for this practical task.
- • Students do not necessarily need to plot the graph for the experiment before reaching the conclusion as the relationship should be obvious.
Lesson 75Parallel Circuits and Energy Transfer→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 69–74
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C), joule (J), second (s) and volt (V)
- 2.7 explain why a series or parallel circuit is more appropriate for particular applications, including domestic lighting
- 2.17 understand why current is conserved at a junction in a circuit
- 2.18 know that the voltage across two components connected in parallel is the same
- 2.20 know that: • voltage is the energy transferred per unit charge passed • the volt is a joule per coulomb
- 2.21 know and use the relationship between energy transferred, charge and voltage: energy transferred = charge × voltage E = Q × V
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why a parallel circuit is more appropriate for some applications
- describe why current is conserved at a junction in a circuit
- state that the voltage across two components connected in parallel is the same
- define voltage as the energy transferred per unit charge passed and the volt as being a joule per coulomb
- recall and use the relationship energy transferred = charge × voltage.
🔑 Key Words
- energy transferred = charge × voltage, E = Q × V
- parallel circuit: an electric circuit that has more than one path that the current can follow
- voltage (V): the amount of energy carried by each unit of charge from a cell/battery or power supply to the circuit components
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Low voltage power supplies should be used to limit currents.
Lesson 76Mains Electrical Safety→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 59–63
📚 Specification Points
- 2.2 understand how the use of insulation, double insulation, earthing, fuses and circuit breakers protects the device or user in a range of domestic appliances
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how the use of insulation protects the user in a range of domestic appliances
- describe how the use of fuses protects the device in a range of domestic appliances
- describe how the use of fuses, earthing and double insulation protects the user in a range of domestic appliances
- describe how the use of circuit breakers protects the device and user in a range of domestic appliances.
🔑 Key Words
- circuit breaker: an automatic switch which cuts off a circuit if the current is too high
- double-insulated: when a device is constructed from plastic to help prevent electrocution
- earthing: connecting a circuit to an earth wire to give an easy path for current
- fuse: a thin piece of wire designed to melt when currents are too high and cut off a circuit
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not use naked fuse wire as this can become hot enough to cause burns.
Lesson 77Mains Electricity Calculations→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 63–65
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C), joule (J), ohm (Ω), second (s), volt (V) and watt (W)
- 2.3 understand why a current in a resistor results in the electrical transfer of energy and an increase in temperature, and how this can be used in a variety of domestic contexts
- 2.4 know and use the relationship between power, current and voltage: power = current × voltage P = I × V and apply the relationship to the selection of appropriate fuses
- 2.5 use the relationship between energy transferred, current, voltage and time: energy transferred = current × voltage × time E = I × V × t
- 6.1 use the following units: ampere (A), volt (V) and watt (W)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why a current in a resistor results in the electrical transfer of energy and an increase in temperature, and how this can be used in a variety of domestic contexts
- recall and use the relationship: power = current × voltage
- use the relationship: energy transferred = current × voltage × time.
🔑 Key Words
- electrical energy equation: energy transferred by an electric current = current × voltage × time (E = I × V × t)
- electrical power equation: power = current × voltage (P = I × V)
- power equation: energy transferred = power × time (E = P × t)
Lesson 27Properties of Waves→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 97–99
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 explain the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves
- 3.3 know the definitions of amplitude, wavefront, frequency, wavelength and period of a wave
- 3.4 know that waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter
- 3.1 use the following units: hertz (Hz) and metre (m)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the difference between longitudinal, transverse, mechanical and electromagnetic waves and give examples of each
- define amplitude and period of a wave
- define wavefront and wavelength of a wave
- know that waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter.
🔑 Key Words
- amplitude: maximum displacement or half the full height of a wave
- direction of propagation: the direction in which a wave carries energy
- electromagnetic wave: formed by oscillating electric and magnetic fields
- longitudinal wave: oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer
- mechanical wave: formed by oscillating particles
- oscillations/oscillating: periodic motion that repeats itself in a regular cycle
- period: time taken for one oscillation
- transverse wave: oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer
- wavefront: a line where all the oscillations are in phase and the same distance from the source
- wavelength: distance between adjacent points with identical displacements
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Clean up any water spills immediately.
- • Students should observe the motion of the wave crests.
Lesson 28Wave Speeds→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 99–101
📚 Specification Points
- 3.1 use the following units: hertz (Hz) and metre (m)
- 3.3 know the definitions of amplitude, wavefront, frequency, wavelength and period of a wave
- 3.5 know and use the relationship between the speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave: wave speed = frequency × wavelength v = f × λ
- 3.6 use the relationship between frequency and time period: frequency = 1/(time period) f = 1/T
- 3.7 use the above relationships in different contexts, including sound waves and electromagnetic waves
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define frequency of a wave
- use the equation: wave speed = frequency × wavelength.
🔑 Key Words
- frequency: the number of waves per second
- wave speed: distance travelled by a wave per unit time
- wave speed equation: wave speed = frequency × wavelength
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Mop up any spilled water straight away
Lesson 29Investigating Reflection→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 102–103
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 explain that all waves can be reflected and refracted
- 3.14 know that light waves are transverse waves and that they can be reflected and refracted
- 3.15 use the law of reflection (the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the reflection of waves and give examples of reflection of longitudinal sound waves and transverse light waves
- plan an investigation into the law of reflection using a ray box and a mirror
- state the law of reflection.
🔑 Key Words
- angle of incidence: the angle between the normal and the incident ray
- angle of reflection: the angle between the normal and the reflected ray
- the law of reflection: the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
- the normal: a line drawn perpendicular (at a 90° angle) to the reflecting surface at the point the ray meets the reflecting surface
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The ray box can get hot, so students should take care when handling it not to burn their fingers.
- • The light bulb is likely to be fragile so easily broken, and broken glass is a hazard.
- • Glass mirrors can have sharp edges, especially when chipped.
- • It is important that students attempt to collect accurate data for the experiment: they need to take great care with the protractor and try to measure to the nearest degree. This can be quite challenging (see Support ).
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a simple table for analysis. Display the Slideshow: Results table . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Slideshow: Results table
- • Students may point out that the angles do not exactly match. Ask: Why do you think there is some variation? (Possible answers: small errors in reading angles, inaccurate positioning of the protractor, or placing the mirror exactly on the paper between readings.)
Lesson 30Images in Mirrors→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 102–103
📚 Specification Points
- 3.15 use the law of reflection (the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection)
- 3.16 draw ray diagrams to illustrate reflection and refraction
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state and apply the law of reflection to draw ray diagrams for simple reflections
- locate and then describe the properties of the image formed in a plane mirror.
🔑 Key Words
- laterally inverted: when the left and right sides are reversed
- virtual image: an image formed where imaginary rays appear to come from
- real image: an image formed by real rays passing through a point
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Any water spills should be cleaned up immediately.
- • Keep electrical equipment away from water.
- • You should remind students of the relationship between wavefronts and the direction of travel: Ask: Which way are the wavefronts moving? (Answer: In the direction of propagation.)
- • Place the flat barrier into the tank so that it makes an angle of approximately 45° with the wavefronts. Describe what happens to the wavefronts when they reach the barrier. The students should see that the wavefronts are reflected from the flat barrier at the same angle that they hit the barrier at. Ask students: Are the waves following the law of reflection? Briefly share students’ thoughts then move to the next step.
- • Be careful if a glass pane is used, they are fragile and can be sharp.
- • Make sure that you do not put your finger in the flame of the lit tealight.
Lesson 78Introducing Refraction→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 115–116
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 explain that all waves can be reflected and refracted
- 3.14 know that light waves are transverse waves and that they can be reflected and refracted
- 3.16 draw ray diagrams to illustrate reflection and refraction
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the refraction of waves as they move from one medium to another
- draw ray diagrams that show the ray paths for the refraction of light.
🔑 Key Words
- dispersion: the splitting of white light into the colours of the visible spectrum
- medium (plural: media): the ‘material’ through which a wave travels
- normal (the): a line perpendicular (at right angles to) to a point on a surface or boundary. Used in the construction of ray diagrams.
- reflection: when a wave reaches a boundary and changes direction instead of entering a new medium
- refraction: change in speed, direction or wavelength of a wave when it crosses the boundary between two different media
Lesson 81Refraction of Light→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 115–117
Lab Book: Pages 17–20
📚 Specification Points
- 3.17 practical: investigate the refraction of light, using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and triangular prisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the behaviour of light at boundaries in a semi-circular glass block
- describe the total internal reflection of light at a glass–air boundary
- describe the dispersion of light in a glass prism.
🔑 Key Words
- critical angle (c): the angle of incidence which causes the angle of refraction to be 90 degrees
- dispersion: the splitting of white light into the colours of the visible spectrum
- refraction: change in speed, direction or wavelength of a wave when it crosses the boundary between two different media
- total internal reflection (TIR): when a light wave is reflected at the boundary between two different media; the reflection occurs when light is moving from a material which has a higher refractive index to one which has a lower refractive index
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ray boxes might get hot. Take care when touching the ray box. Switch the light source off between making measurements.
Lesson 82Refractive Index→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 115–116
📚 Specification Points
- 3.18 know and use the relationship between refractive index, angle of incidence and angle of refraction: n = sin i/sin r
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the refractive index, n, of a glass block
- know and use the relationship between refractive index, angle of incidence and angle of refraction: n = sin i sin r · -->
🔑 Key Words
- refractive index: a measure of how much a material slows down light, calculated as n = sin i / sin r
- angle of incidence: the angle between the incoming ray and the normal
- angle of refraction: the angle between the refracted ray and the normal
- refraction: the change in direction of a wave as it passes from one medium to another
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a simple table for analysis. Display Slide 1 of the slideshow. Students should copy and complete the results table in their exercise books. Slideshow: Results and calculations
Lesson 83Investigating Refractive Index→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 116
Lab Book: Pages 21–24
📚 Specification Points
- 3.18 know and use the relationship between refractive index, angle of incidence and angle of refraction: n=sin i/sin r
- 3.19 practical: investigate the refractive index of glass, using a glass block
🎯 Learning Objectives
- measure the refractive index of glass experimentally
- apply the relationship \({n=}\frac{\sin i}{\sin r}\) to find refractive index.
🔑 Key Words
- refractive index: a measure of how much light is bent when passing through a material
- glass block: a rectangular piece of glass used to investigate refraction
- normal: an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to a surface at the point where a ray hits it
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ray boxes may get hot. Take care when touching the ray box. Switch the light source off between making measurements.
- • The practical task needs to be carried out with great care in order to measure the angles of incidence and refraction accurately. Although the angle at which the ray leaves the glass should be identical to the angle of the original incident ray, there will typically be a slight difference when measured.
Lesson 84Total Internal Reflection→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 117–121
📚 Specification Points
- 3.20 describe the role of total internal reflection in transmitting information along optical fibres and in prisms
- 3.21 explain the meaning of critical angle c
- 3.22 know and use the relationship between critical angle and refractive index: sin c = 1/n
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what is meant by total internal reflection, including the importance of the critical angle, c
- know and use the relationship between the critical angle and the refractive index: sin   c = 1 n
- describe the role of total internal reflection in transmitting information along optical fibres and in prisms.
🔑 Key Words
- critical angle (c): the angle of incidence which causes the angle of refraction to be 90 degrees
- critical angle equation: sin   c = 1 n
- optical density: the degree to which light waves are slowed down in a medium; in a material with a high optical density, light waves travel more slowly than in a material with a lower optical density
- total internal reflection (TIR): when a light wave is reflected at the boundary between two different media; the reflection occurs when light is moving from a material which has a higher refractive index to one which has a lower refractive index
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Glass can have sharp edges; blocks should be checked in advance.
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
Lesson 31The Electromagnetic Spectrum – Long Wavelengths→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 106–109
📚 Specification Points
- 3.10 know that light is part of a continuous electromagnetic spectrum that includes radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma ray radiations, and that all these waves travel at the same speed in free space
- 3.11 know the order of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, including the colours of the visible spectrum
- 3.12 explain some of the uses of electromagnetic radiations, including: o radio waves: broadcasting and communications o microwaves: cooking and satellite transmissions o infrared: heaters and night vision equipment
- 3.13 explain the detrimental effects of excessive exposure of the human body to electromagnetic waves, including: o microwaves: internal heating of body tissue o infrared: skin burns and describe simple protective measures against the risks
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe visible light as part of the electromagnetic spectrum and that all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in free space
- give the order of the electromagnetic spectrum
- explain the uses of radio waves, microwaves, and infrared radiation
- explain the dangers of microwaves and infrared radiation and describe simple protective measures.
🔑 Key Words
- electromagnetic spectrum: the complete set of electromagnetic waves
- radio wave: electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelength, which are used in communications
- microwave: electromagnetic waves with wavelengths of a few cm, which are used for communications and cooking
- infrared radiation: electromagnetic waves with a wavelength longer than red visible light
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not look directly at the Sun.
- • Demonstrating the apparatus and the fact that there is a noticeable temperature rise is sufficient. You do not need to collect a complete set of data for students to analyse.
- • Students should predict what will happen to the thermometers. Ask: Which thermometer will show the greatest temperature increase?
Lesson 32The Electromagnetic Spectrum – Short Wavelengths→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 110-112
📚 Specification Points
- 3.10 know that light is part of a continuous electromagnetic spectrum that includes radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma ray radiations, and that all these waves travel at the same speed in free space
- 3.11 know the order of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, including the colours of the visible spectrum
- 3.12 explain some of the uses of electromagnetic radiations, including: o radio waves: broadcasting and communications o microwaves: cooking and satellite transmissions o infrared: heaters and night vision equipment
- 3.13 explain the detrimental effects of excessive exposure of the human body to electromagnetic waves, including: o microwaves: internal heating of body tissue o infrared: skin burns and describe simple protective measures against the risks
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the order of the colours of visible light in terms of wavelength and frequency
- explain some uses of visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays
- explain some of the dangers of ultraviolet and gamma rays and describe simple protective measures.
🔑 Key Words
- ionising radiation: this causes atoms to gain or lose electric charge, forming ions
- light: waves that can be detected by the eye
- ultraviolet radiation: electromagnetic radiation beyond the violet part of the visible spectrum and which is ionising
- X: -
- rays: high-frequency electromagnetic radiation produced by electron collisions
- gamma radiation: very high-frequency electromagnetic radiation produced by nuclear decay
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not look at the bulb in the ultraviolet lamp and do not allow it to shine on your skin.
- • Students should work in small groups for this practical task, moving between the three stations and spending approximately 3 minutes at each. As they do so you should perform the demonstration for gamma rays at the third station to each group. Instructions are shown below in Teacher demonstration 1: Demonstrating gamma radiation .
- • Do not allow the students to handle the gas mantle or radioactive rock.
Lesson 33Investigating the Speed of Sound in Air→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 124–125
Lab Book: Pages 25–26
📚 Specification Points
- 3.23 know that sound waves are longitudinal waves that can be reflected and refracted
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the speed of sound in air
- reduce random timing errors by using repeating cycles.
🔑 Key Words
- random error: an error in measurements caused by random variations, such as reaction times
- percentage difference: the percentage difference between a measured value and the actual value
- mean: the average when all the numbers are added together and divided by how many there are
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear full shoes with closed heels and toes to protect their feet in case they drop the blocks.
- • Students should take care not to trap fingers or thumbs when clapping wooden blocks together.
- • Carry out the practical in a secure area, away from traffic or other hazards.
- • Students should follow the Method in the Lab Book to perform the core practical and record their results in the table on p. 25.
Lesson 35The Doppler Effect→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 104
📚 Specification Points
- 3.8 explain why there is a change in the observed frequency and wavelength of a wave when its source is moving relative to an observer and that this is known as the Doppler effect
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the change in wavelength of a wave when a source and observer move towards each other
- explain the change in wavelength of a wave when a source and observer move away from each other
- link a change in wavelength to a change in frequency
- state that a change in wavelength of a wave, when there is relative motion between a source and observer, is called the Doppler effect
- explain how the Doppler effect can apply to light as well as sound.
🔑 Key Words
- Doppler effect: the change in observed frequency and wavelength of a wave when the source is moving relative to the observer
- red shift: an increase in wavelength (decrease in frequency) observed when a wave source moves away from the observer
- blue shift: a decrease in wavelength (increase in frequency) observed when a wave source moves towards the observer
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Tie the string to the sound source securely and with tape.
- • Swing the sound source. Students should hear the pitch of the sound changing as the source moves relative to them. This will be a rising and falling of pitch.
Lesson 37Density→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 173–175
Lab Book: Pages 37–40
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: degree Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram (kg), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.3 know and use the relationship between density, mass and volume: density=mass/volume
- 5.4 practical: investigate density using direct measurements of mass and volume
🎯 Learning Objectives
- plan an investigation to find the density of a regular object
- plan an investigation to find the density of an irregular object by submersion in water.
🔑 Key Words
- density: \(\mathrm{density}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}}{\mathrm{volume}}\)
- volume of a cuboid: volume = length × width × height
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Mop up any spills straight away.
Lesson 38Density and Pressure→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 173–176
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.3 know and use the relationship between density, mass and volume: density=mass/volume
- 5.5 know and use the relationship between pressure, force and area: pressure=force/area
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship: \(\mathrm{density}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}}{\mathrm{volume}}\)
- know and use the relationship: \(\mathrm{pressure=\frac{force}{area}}\).
🔑 Key Words
- pascal: a unit of pressure where 1 pascal = 1 \(\mathrm{N/m^2}\)
- pressure: \(\mathrm{pressure=\frac{force}{area}}\)
Lesson 41Pressure in Fluids→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 176–179
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.6 understand how the pressure at a point in a gas or liquid at rest acts equally in all directions
- 5.7 know and use the relationship for pressure difference: pressure difference=height×density×gravitational field strength P=h×ρ×g
- 5.15 explain how molecules in a gas have random motion and that they exert a force and hence a pressure on the walls of a container
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain how the molecules in a gas exert a pressure on the walls of their container
- know and use the relationship: pressure difference = height × density × gravitational field strength.
🔑 Key Words
- pressure: force per unit area, measured in pascals (Pa)
- pascal (Pa): the unit of pressure, equal to 1 N/m²
- fluid: a substance that can flow; a liquid or a gas
- pressure in fluids: pressure increases with depth and acts equally in all directions at a point
Lesson 95Temperature in Kelvin→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 190–192
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram, kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.16 understand why there is an absolute zero of temperature which is -273 °C
- 5.17 describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
- 5.18 understand why an increase in temperature results in an increase in the average speed of gas molecules
- 5.19 know that the Kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
- know that the Kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules.
🔑 Key Words
- absolute zero: the lowest possible temperature (-273 °C or 0 K) at which particles have no kinetic energy
- kelvin (K): the SI unit of temperature; 0 K = -273 °C
- kinetic energy of particles: the energy of motion of particles, which increases with temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection and use heatproof gloves when handling hot equipment. Avoid touching the
Lesson 96Boyle's Law→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 187–189
📚 Specification Points
- 5.22 use the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature: p1V1 = p2V2
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain, for a fixed amount of gas, the qualitative relationship between pressure and volume at constant temperature
- use the relationship between the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature: p 1 V 1 = p 2 V 2
🔑 Key Words
- Boyle's law: at constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume (p₁V₁ = p₂V₂)
- inversely proportional: as one quantity increases, the other decreases by the same factor
Lesson 97The Pressure Law→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 187–192
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram, kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.20 explain, for a fixed amount of gas, the qualitative relationship between: • pressure and volume at constant temperature • pressure and Kelvin temperature at constant volume
- 5.21 use the relationship between the pressure and Kelvin temperature of a gas at constant volume: p1/T1 = p2/T2
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain, for a fixed amount of gas, the qualitative relationship between pressure and Kelvin temperature at constant volume
- use the relationship between the pressure and Kelvin temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume: p 1 T 1 = p 2 T 2
🔑 Key Words
- pressure law: at constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
- directly proportional: as one quantity increases, the other increases by the same factor
- absolute temperature: temperature measured in kelvin
Lesson 42Magnetism→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 197–198
📚 Specification Points
- 6.2 know that magnets repel and attract other magnets and attract magnetic substances
- 6.3 describe the properties of magnetically hard and soft materials
- 6.5 know that magnetism is induced in some materials when they are placed in a magnetic field
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the interactions between magnets
- categorise materials based on their magnetic properties
- describe induced magnetism.
🔑 Key Words
- induced magnet: material which becomes magnetised when it is placed near another magnet
- magnet: a material that is magnetised and has a magnetic field
- magnetically hard material: induced magnet which retains its magnetism when the other magnet is removed
- magnetically soft material: induced magnet which loses its magnetism when the other magnet is removed
- magnetic field: the region of space around a magnet where a magnetic material experiences a force
- magnetic substance: a material which is attracted to both north and south poles of a magnet e.g. iron, steel, nickel
- non-magnetic materials: materials which do not attract or repel a magnet e.g. plastic, wood
- permanent magnet: a material which remains magnetic when not near other magnets (within their magnetic field)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not use sharp objects.
- • Students should work individually or in pairs for this practical task.
- • Make sure students record observations. Display the table template in Slideshow: Results table 1 . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Slideshow: Results table 1
- • Ensure that students realise that not all metals are magnetic; only three common metals are: iron, nickel and cobalt. Some rare earth metals are magnetic, but the students do not need to recall these.
- • Students should note that opposite poles of magnets attract and like poles repel.
- • Be careful with the sharp end of any nail.
- • Students should work individually or pairs for this practical task.
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a simple table for analysis. Display the table template on Slideshow: Results table 2 . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Slideshow: Results table 2
Lesson 43Magnetic Fields→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 199–201
Lab Book: Pages 44–47
📚 Specification Points
- 6.4 understand the term 'magnetic field line'
- 6.6 practical: investigate the magnetic field pattern for a permanent bar magnet and between two bar magnets
- 6.7 describe how to use two permanent magnets to produce a uniform magnetic field pattern
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the term ‘magnetic field line’
- use a compass to plot the shape of magnetic fields surrounding a single magnet and pair of magnets.
🔑 Key Words
- magnetic field: the region of space around a magnet where a magnetic material experiences a force
- magnetic field line: a line showing the direction of the force produced by a magnet
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection to prevent the iron filings getting into eyes.
- • Wear eye protection to prevent the ironing filings getting into eyes.
Lesson 44Magnetic Fields Around Current-Carrying Wires→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 201–203
📚 Specification Points
- 6.8 know that an electric current in a conductor produces a magnetic field around it
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the magnetic effect of a current in a wire
- draw magnetic field patterns produced by a current-carrying wire and a solenoid
- describe the construction of an electromagnet.
🔑 Key Words
- electromagnet: a magnet produced by passing an electric current through a solenoid
- solenoid: a long cylindrical coil of wire
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Do not touch the wire while the current is flowing, as it can get very hot. Switch
Lesson 45The Motor Effect→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 206–208
📚 Specification Points
- 6.12 understand why a force is exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field and how this effect is applied in simple d.c. electric motors and loudspeakers
- 6.13 use the left-hand rule to predict the direction of the resulting force when a wire carries a current perpendicular to a magnetic field
- 6.14 describe how the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field changes with the magnitude and direction of the field and current
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the force on a charged particle when it moves in a magnetic field if its motion is not parallel to the field
- describe the force on a current-carrying wire when it is placed in a magnetic field.
🔑 Key Words
- motor effect: the force affecting a changed particle when if moves through a magnetic field
- Fleming’s left-hand rule: a rule to find the direction of the current (second finger), magnetic field (first finger) or force on a current-carrying wire (thumb); the first finger, second finger and thumb must be placed perpendicular to each other
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • A strong bar magnet should be sufficient to cause deflection. Be careful not to tap the glass with the magnet or it may be damaged. Hold the magnet firmly.
Lesson 46Motors and Speakers→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 208–209
📚 Specification Points
- 6.12 understand why a force is exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field and how this effect is applied in simple d.c. electric motors and loudspeakers
- 6.13 use the left-hand rule to predict the direction of the resulting force when a wire carries a current perpendicular to a magnetic field
- 6.14 describe how the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field changes with the magnitude and direction of the field and current
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the operation of a loudspeaker
- describe the operation of a simple electric motor
- construct a simple electric motor.
🔑 Key Words
- electric motor: the most important use of the motor effect, where movement is produced from current and a magnetic field
- loudspeaker: uses the motor effect to produce vibrations (sounds) from varying electrical signals
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Avoid high volumes and very high frequencies which can be annoying.
Lesson 98Electromagnetic Induction→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 210–212
📚 Specification Points
- 6.15 know that a voltage is induced in a conductor or a coil when it moves through a magnetic field or when a magnetic field changes through it and describe the factors that affect the size of the induced voltage
- 6.16 describe the generation of electricity by the rotation of a magnet within a coil of wire and of a coil of wire within a magnetic field, and describe the factors that affect the size of the induced voltage
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain that a voltage is induced in a conductor or a coil when it moves through a magnetic field or when a magnetic field changes through it
- describe the generation of electricity by the rotation of a magnet within a coil of wire and of a coil of wire within a magnetic field.
🔑 Key Words
- electromagnetic induction: generating a voltage by changing the magnetic field passing through a wire or coil
- generator: a device which uses electromagnetic induction to produce currents
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care with the large magnet, this can be heavy.
- There are no safety considerations.
- • Take care not to turn the generator too quickly and ‘blow’ the bulb or damage the oscilloscope.
Lesson 49The Structure of the Atom→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 221–224
📚 Specification Points
- 7.2 describe the structure of an atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons and use symbols such as to describe particular nuclei
- 7.3 know the terms atomic (proton) number, mass (nucleon) number and isotope
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of the atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons
- understand and use \({}_Z^A\text{X}\) notation for describing a nucleus
- explain what is meant by an isotope of a particular element.
🔑 Key Words
- atomic number: number of protons
- isotope: atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons in the nucleus
- mass number: number of protons plus number of neutrons
- nucleon number: number of protons plus number of neutrons
Lesson 50Radioactive Decay→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 224–226
📚 Specification Points
- 7.4 know that alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, and gamma (γ) rays are ionising radiations emitted from unstable nuclei in a random process
- 7.5 describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles and gamma (γ) rays, and recall that they may be distinguished in terms of penetrating power and ability to ionise
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what an ion is and how it forms in the process of ionisation
- understand that radioactive decay is both a random and spontaneous process
- describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β-) particles, and gamma (γ) rays.
🔑 Key Words
- alpha particle: two protons and two neutrons
- beta particle: electron from inside the nucleus
- gamma rays: a high energy electromagnetic wave
- ion: atom which has gained or lost electrons
- random: we cannot predict which nucleus will decay next, or when a particular nucleus will decay
- spontaneous: the decay of a nucleus cannot be influenced with any changes to conditions, for example, chemical reactions, temperature, pressure
Lesson 51Properties of Radiation→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 224–226
Lab Book: Pages 48–50
📚 Specification Points
- 7.5 describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles and gamma (γ) rays, and recall that they may be distinguished in terms of penetrating power and ability to ionise
- 7.6 practical: investigate the penetration powers of different types of radiation using either radioactive sources or simulations
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β-) particles, and gamma (γ) rays
- understand the penetration power of each type of radiation and relate this to their ability to ionise.
🔑 Key Words
- alpha particle (α): a positively charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons, emitted during radioactive decay
- beta particle (β⁻): a fast-moving electron emitted from the nucleus during radioactive decay
- gamma ray (γ): a high-energy electromagnetic wave emitted from the nucleus
- ionising power: the ability of radiation to remove electrons from atoms
- penetrating power: the ability of radiation to pass through materials
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Sources should not be pointed towards the body or face.
- • When not in use, radioactive sources should be kept in a locked lead-lined safe.
Lesson 52Nuclear Decay Equations→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 227–230
📚 Specification Points
- 7.7 describe the effects on the atomic and mass numbers of a nucleus of the emission of each of the four main types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma and neutron radiation)
- 7.8 understand how to balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge
🎯 Learning Objectives
- balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge for alpha emission
- balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge for beta emission
- balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge for gamma emission.
🔑 Key Words
- alpha decay: the process through which an unstable nucleus becomes more stable by emitting an alpha particle
- beta decay: the process through which an unstable nucleus becomes more stable by emitting a beta particle
- gamma decay: the process through which an unstable nucleus becomes more stable by emitting a gamma ray
Lesson 53Detecting and Measuring Radioactive Decay→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 233–237
📚 Specification Points
- 7.1 use the following units: becquerel (Bq), hour (h), minute (min) and second (s)
- 7.9 know that photographic film or a Geiger-Muller detector can detect ionising radiations
- 7.10 explain the sources of background (ionising) radiation from Earth and space
- 7.11 know that the activity of a radioactive source decreases over a period of time and is measured in becquerels
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that photographic film or a Geiger−Müller detector can detect ionising radiation
- describe and explain background radiation
- state that the activity of a radioactive source decreases over time and is measured in becquerels.
🔑 Key Words
- activity: the number of decays per second, measured in becquerels
- background radiation: radiation around us all the time
- becquerel: unit of activity, 1 Bq = 1 decay per second
Lesson 54Half-life→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 237–239
📚 Specification Points
- 7.12 know the definition of the term half-life and understand that it is different for different radioactive isotopes
- 7.13 use the concept of the half-life to carry out simple calculations on activity, including graphical methods
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand and use the term half-life
- use the concept of the half-life to carry out simple calculations on activity.
🔑 Key Words
- half-life: the time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei (or activity) of a sample to halve
- radioactive decay: the random process by which an unstable nucleus emits radiation
- activity: the number of radioactive decays per second, measured in becquerels (Bq)
Lesson 55Dangers of Radioactivity→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 243 and 247–248
📚 Specification Points
- 7.15 describe the difference between contamination and irradiation
- 7.16 describe the dangers of ionising radiations, including: • that radiation can cause mutations in living organisms • that radiation can damage cells and tissue • the problems arising from the disposal of radioactive waste and how the associated risks can be reduced
🎯 Learning Objectives
- to explain the danger of radiation to humans
- how the problems arising from the disposal of radioactive waste and the associated risks can be reduced.
🔑 Key Words
- contamination: unwanted presence of radioactive material
- irradiation: past exposure to radiation, does not emit radiation
Lesson 56Uses of Radioactivity 1→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 243–246
📚 Specification Points
- 7.14 describe uses of radioactivity in industry and medicine
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe uses of radioactivity in industry, such as thickness monitoring and tracers
- describe uses of radioactivity in medicine, such as diagnosis and treatment of cancer
- explain why specific types of radiation are chosen for different applications
🔑 Key Words
- carbon dating: a method for determining the age of something containing organic material using the half-life of carbon-14
- carbon-14: a radioactive isotope of carbon
Lesson 57Uses of Radioactivity 2→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 241–243
📚 Specification Points
- 7.14 describe uses of radioactivity in industry and medicine
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe and explain uses of radioactivity in medicine.
🔑 Key Words
- tracer: a radioactive substance introduced into a system to track the flow or movement of materials
- radiotherapy: the use of ionising radiation to destroy cancer cells
- sterilisation: the use of gamma radiation to kill bacteria on medical instruments or food
Lesson 106Nuclear Fission→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 250–253
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.18 understand how a nucleus of U-235 can be split (the process of fission) by collision with a neutron, and that this process releases energy as kinetic energy of the fission products
- 7.19 know that the fission of U-235 produces two radioactive daughter nuclei and a small number of neutrons
- 7.20 describe how a chain reaction can be set up if the neutrons produced by one fission strike other U-235 nuclei
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how a nucleus of U-235 can be split by absorption of a neutron, releasing energy as kinetic energy of the fission products and producing two radioactive daughter nuclei and a small number of neutrons
- describe how a chain reaction can be set up if the neutrons produced by one fission strike other U-235 nuclei.
🔑 Key Words
- chain reaction: occurs when the fission of one nucleus releases two or three neutrons which cause other nuclei to undergo fission
- daughter nuclei: two smaller nuclei formed as a result of nuclear fission
- fissile: a (large) nuclei which can undergo fission
- fission: splitting up of a large nucleus to form smaller nuclei
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
- • Students should work in small groups, from two to four students, to carry out the task. They should answer the worksheet questions in their exercise books as they work through the task. Worksheet 2 Answer sheet
Lesson 107Fission Reactors→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 250–253
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.21 describe the role played by the control rods and moderator in the fission process
- 7.22 understand the role of shielding around a nuclear reactor
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process of nuclear fission in a reactor
- explain the roles of control rods, moderator and shielding in a fission reactor
- understand that nuclear fission is a source of energy
🔑 Key Words
- control rods: rods made of boron or cadmium that control the rate of fission
- moderator: a material such as water or graphite which is used to slow down the neutrons
Lesson 108Nuclear Fusion→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 250–253
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.23 explain the difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission
- 7.24 describe nuclear fusion as the creation of larger nuclei resulting in a loss of mass from smaller nuclei, accompanied by a release of energy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission
- describe nuclear fusion as the joining of small nuclei to form larger nuclei with a loss of mass
- understand that fusion releases energy and is the energy source for stars
🔑 Key Words
- nuclear fusion: the joining of two small atomic nuclei to form a larger nucleus, releasing energy
- nuclear fission: the splitting of a large atomic nucleus into two smaller nuclei, releasing energy
- mass defect: the difference in mass between the reactants and products of a nuclear reaction
- plasma: an extremely hot gas in which atoms are stripped of their electrons
Lesson 109Fusion Reactors and the Sun→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 253–254
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.25 know that fusion is the energy source for stars
- 7.26 explain why nuclear fusion does not happen at low temperatures and pressure, due to electrostatic repulsion of protons
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the conditions necessary for nuclear fusion in stars/the Sun
- explain the challenges of designing the nuclear fusion reactor for a power station.
🔑 Key Words
- nuclear fusion: the joining of light nuclei to form heavier nuclei, releasing energy
- electrostatic repulsion: the force that pushes positively charged nuclei apart
- plasma: a state of matter at extremely high temperatures where electrons are separated from nuclei
- star: a massive body that generates energy through nuclear fusion
Lesson 59Motion in the Universe→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 259–266
📚 Specification Points
- 8.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), newton (N), newton/kilogram (N/kg)
- 8.2 know that: • the universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies • a galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars • our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy
- 8.3 understand why gravitational field strength, g, varies and know that it is different on other planets and the Moon from that on the Earth
- 8.4 explain that gravitational force: • causes moons to orbit planets • causes the planets to orbit the Sun • causes artificial satellites to orbit the Earth • causes comets to orbit the Sun
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe some of the structure of the Universe:the Universe as a large collection of billions of galaxiesa galaxy is a large collection of billions of starsour Solar System is in the Milky Way galaxy
- the Universe as a large collection of billions of galaxies
- a galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars
- our Solar System is in the Milky Way galaxy
- explain why gravitational field strength,g, varies
- explain the effects of gravitational force on the Solar System
- state that gravitational force causes artificial satellites to orbit
- the
- Earth.
🔑 Key Words
- galaxy: a collection of billions of stars held together by gravitational forces
- moon: an object in orbit around a planet
- planet: a large, spherical, object in orbit around a star
- solar system: a star and the contents in orbit around it (planets, asteroids and comets)
- Universe: all the matter and energy in existence
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Make sure that the space is safe to release the string.
- • Do not spin the bung quickly or use a large one.
Lesson 60Orbital Motion→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 261–264
📚 Specification Points
- 8.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s),newton (N), second (s)
- 8.4 explain that gravitational force: • causes moons to orbit planets • causes the planets to orbit the Sun • causes artificial satellites to orbit the Earth • causes comets to orbit the Sun
- 8.5 describe the differences in the orbits of comets, moons and planets
- 8.6 use the relationship between orbital speed, orbital radius and time period: orbital speed = 2 × π × orbital radius/time period
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how gravitational forces cause comets to orbit the Sun in elliptical paths
- describe the differences in the orbits of comets, moons and planets
- use the relationship between orbital speed, orbital radius and time period for planetary orbits.
🔑 Key Words
- comet: a ball of ice and rock which orbits the Sun in an elliptical orbit
- elliptical orbit: an orbit which is like a squashed circle
- heliocentric: a model of the Solar System which places the Sun at the centre with the planets in orbit around it
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection
Lesson 61Life Cycle of a Star→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 268–269
📚 Specification Points
- 8.9 describe the evolution of stars of similar mass to the Sun through the following stages: • nebula • star (main sequence) • red giant • white dwarf
- 8.10 describe the evolution of stars with a mass larger than the Sun
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the evolution of stars of similar mass to the Sun through the stages of nebula, star (main sequence), red giant and white dwarf
- describe the evolution of stars with a mass larger than the Sun.
🔑 Key Words
- black hole: the remains of the largest stars where light cannot escape
- main sequence: the part of the life cycle of a star where it is stable
- nebula: a cloud of gases and dust
- neutron star: the remains of some supernova explosions, composed of only neutrons
- protostar: a hot ball of gas which will evolve into a star
- red giant: a large mass star with a low surface temperature
- red supergiant: a very large mass star with a low surface temperature
- supernova: the explosion of a very large star
- white dwarf: the remains of the core of a star which are at a very high temperature
Lesson 62Classifying Stars→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 266–267
📚 Specification Points
- 5.17 describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
- 8.7 understand how stars can be classified according to their colour
- 8.8 know that a star's colour is related to its surface temperature
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how stars are classified based on their colour
- discuss how a star’s temperature affects its colour
- convert between the degree Celsius and Kelvin scales.
🔑 Key Words
- Kelvin scale: a temperature scale used by scientists based on the behaviour of matter, the symbol used is K and the lowest possible temperature is 0 K
- stellar classification: a system of classifying stars by their colour or temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The lamp will become very hot – do not allow the students to touch it.
- • Do not let the students stare into the bright light.
Lesson 104The Red-Shift Equation→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 271–273
📚 Specification Points
- 8.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s) and second (s)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the equation relating change in wavelength, original wavelength, velocity of a galaxy and the speed of light:\(\;\mathrm{\frac{change\;in\;wavelength}{wavelength}}=\mathrm{\frac{velocity\;of\;galaxy}{speed\;of\;light}}\)
- describe the red-shift in light received from galaxies at different distances away from the Earth and explain why the red-shift of galaxies provides evidence for the expansion of the Universe. Slideshow: Learning objectives
🔑 Key Words
- Doppler shift equation: \(\mathrm{\frac{change\;in\;wavelength}{wavelength}}=\mathrm{\frac{velocity\;of\;galaxy}{speed\;of\;light}}\) or \(\frac{\lambda-\lambda_\circ}{\lambda_\circ}=\frac{\triangle\lambda}{\lambda_\circ}=\frac vc\)
- recessional velocity: the velocity at which a galaxy is moving away from us
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Don’t burst the balloon.
Single Award Science — 4SS0 Subset of Double Award per the 4SS0 specification. Lesson numbers preserved. Use the Subject filter above to jump to a science.
🌿 Biology
Lesson 1The Characteristics of Living Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 3–4
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 understand how living organisms share the following characteristics: they require nutrition they respire they excrete their waste they respond to their surroundings they move they control their internal conditions they reproduce they grow and develop
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the characteristics of life
- describe the characteristics of life.
🔑 Key Words
- cell: the basic unit that living organisms are made of
- excretion: getting rid of waste substances that are produced inside an organism
- homeostasis: keeping the conditions inside an organism at constant levels
- multicellular: made of many cells
- nutrition: the process by which an organism gets the substances it needs for energy, health and growth
- respiration: the process by which organisms release energy from their food
- stimulus: a change that an organism detects, inside or outside its body
- unicellular: made of one cell
Lesson 2The Structures of Animal and Plant Cells→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 4–6
📚 Specification Points
- 2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole
- 2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole
- 2.4 know the similarities and differences in the structure of plant and animal cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the cell structures in animal and plant cells
- describe the functions of cell structures in animal and plant cells
- compare the structures of plant and animal cells.
🔑 Key Words
- cell membrane: thin outer covering of a cell that controls what enters and leaves it
- cell wall: a tough layer of material around some cells that is used for protection and support and in plant cells it is stiff and made of cellulose
- chlorophyll: green substance found inside chloroplasts that traps energy from light
- chloroplast: green cell structure in which glucose is produced by photosynthesis
- chromosome: structure inside the nucleus that contains genes
- cytoplasm: watery jelly inside a cell where the cell’s activities take place
- enzyme: a protein that controls a chemical reaction in the cytoplasm
- gene: section of genetic material (usually DNA) that controls part of the activity of a cell
- mitochondrion: cell structure in which respiration using oxygen occurs and the plural is mitochondria
- nucleus: cell structure that controls the cell
- organelle: small part of a cell that has a certain function and chloroplasts, nuclei and mitochondria are all organelles
- partially permeable membranes: membranes that allow some substances through them but not others
- ribosome: cell structure that makes proteins
- vacuole: space surrounded by a membrane in the cytoplasm of cells. Plant cells have a large permanent vacuole, which stores water and nutrients, and helps to support the plant by keeping the cells rigid.
Lesson 3Features of Eukaryotic Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 25–28
📚 Specification Points
- 1.2 describe the common features shown by eukaryotic organisms: plants, animals, fungi and protoctists Plants: these are multicellular organisms; their cells contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out photosynthesis; their cells have cellulose cell walls; they store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose. Examples include flowering plants, such as a cereal (for example, maize), and an herbaceous legume (for example, peas or beans). Animals: these are multicellular organisms; their cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not able to carry out photosynthesis; they have no cell walls; they usually have nervous co-ordination and are able to move from one place to another: they often store carbohydrate as glycogen. Examples include mammals (for example, humans) and insects (for example, housefly and mosquito). Fungi: these are organisms that are not able to carry out photosynthesis; their body is usually organised into a mycelium made from thread-like structures called hyphae, which contain many nuclei; some examples are single-celled; their cells have walls made of chitin; they feed by extracellular secretion of digestive enzymes onto food material and absorption of the organic products; this is known as saprotrophic nutrition; they may store carbohydrate as glycogen. Examples include Mucor, which has the typical fungal hyphal structure, and yeast, which is single-celled. Protoctists: these are microscopic single-celled organisms. Some, like Amoeba, that live in pond water, have features like an animal cell, while others, like Chlorella, have chloroplasts and are more like plants. A pathogenic example is Plasmodium, responsible for causing malaria.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term eukaryotic
- describe plants, animals and many fungi as multicellular organisms
- describe the features of plants, animals, fungi and protoctists
- compare the features of plants, animals, fungi and protoctists using examples.
🔑 Key Words
- alga: protoctist that can photosynthesise. Plural is algae.
- Amoeba: common protoctist (and a protozoan)
- cellulose: type of carbohydrate found in the cell walls of plants and some protoctists
- chitin:type of carbohydrate found in the cell walls of fungi
- Chlorella: common alga (protoctist)
- eukaryotic:describes organisms with cells that contain nuclei, mitochondria and other organelles with membranes around them. Animals, plants, fungi and protoctists are all eukaryotes.
- glycogen: storage carbohydrate made in animals and fungi. Found in liver and muscles.
- hypha: thread-like filament of cells in fungi
- invertebrate: animal without a vertebral column (backbone)
- kingdom: Biologists often divide living things into five large groups, called kingdoms: plants, animals, fungi, protoctists and bacteria.
- multicellular: made of many cells
- Mucor: a mould fungus
- mycelium:massive network of hyphae in multicellular fungi
- nervous system: network of nerve cells that carry information from one part of an animal to another
- pathogen: microorganism that causes disease
- Plasmodium: protoctist that causes malaria
- prokaryotic:describes organisms whose cells have organelles that do not have membranes around them (such as nuclei and mitochondria). Bacteria are prokaryotes.
- protoctist: kingdom of eukaryotic organisms, most of which are single-celled.
- protozoan: single-celled protoctist that needs to feed on other organisms or their remains. Plural is protozoa.
- saprophytic:describes organisms that feed on dead or decaying matter. Fungi are saprophytes.
- starch: storage carbohydrate made in plants
- sucrose: carbohydrate (a sugar) made in plants, which some plants store
- unicellular: made of one cell
- vertebrate: animal with a vertebral column (backbone)
- yeast: a unicellular fungus
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should not seal a dish all the way around the join between its top and base, since this can allow the growth of dangerous anaerobic organisms. Using two pieces of tape allows some air to enter the dish.
- • Tell the students that, once sealed, the plates must not be reopened.
- • Students should examine the plates and record their results. Students should dispose the plates safely (e.g. using an autoclave), according to your school and country’s safety procedures.
- • Ask students to wash their hands after handling the dish.
- • After the method to expose the plates has been followed, the dishes should be left upside down in a warm place (or incubator set at 25 °C). Colonies should appear within 48 hours. Plates should not be left for much longer than 48 hours to prevent overgrowth of colonies.
Lesson 4Prokaryotic Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 28–29
📚 Specification Points
- 1.3 describe the common features shown by prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria Bacteria: these are microscopic single-celled organisms; they have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids; they lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA; some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis but most feed off other living or dead organisms. Examples include Lactobacillus bulgaricus, a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk, and Pneumococcus, a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term prokaryotic
- identify prokaryotic features from images of bacteria
- describe the functions of the different features of bacterial cells
- describe the roles of:many bacteria as decomposersLactobacillus bulgaricusin the production of yoghurtPneumococcusin the development of pneumonia.
- many bacteria as decomposers
- Lactobacillus bulgaricusin the production of yoghurt
- Pneumococcusin the development of pneumonia.
🔑 Key Words
- bacteria:small single-celled organisms that are prokaryotic
- capsule:an outer layer that protects bacteria
- flagellum:a tail-like structure used for movement in some bacteria
- nucleoid:an area of the cytoplasm in a bacterial cell in which there is a circular chromosome
- plasmids:small circular pieces of DNA that are found in the cytoplasm of bacterial cells.
- prokaryote:an organism with cells that lack a nucleus
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students must not open the plates.
- • Students should wash their hands after handling the plates.
- • Students should dispose of all plates safely (e.g. using an autoclave), according to your school and country’s safety procedures.
Lesson 5Pathogens→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 28–29
📚 Specification Points
- 1.4 understand the term pathogen and know that pathogens may include fungi, bacteria, protoctists or viruses Viruses: these are not living organisms. They are small particles, smaller than bacteria; they are parasitic and can reproduce only inside living cells; they infect every type of living organism. They have a wide variety of shapes and sizes; they have no cellular structure but have a protein coat and contain one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. Examples include the tobacco mosaic virus that causes discolouring of the leaves of tobacco plants by preventing the formation of chloroplasts, the influenza virus that causes ‘flu’ and the HIV virus that causes AIDS.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term pathogen
- recognise that pathogens can be bacteria, fungi, viruses or protoctists
- outline the basic parts of a virus particle
- explain why viruses are not classed as living
- describe the effects of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), the influenza virus and HIV.
🔑 Key Words
- DNA:genetic material found in most organisms, which stores instructions
- nucleic acid: either RNA or DNA
- parasite:an organism that lives in or on another organism, which it harms (usually by feeding on it)
- pathogen: microorganism that causes disease
- protein coat: tough layer surrounding the genetic material in a virus
- RNA:genetic material similar to DNA that stores instructions in some viruses
- virus:non-living particle that can make copies of itself in living cells.
Lesson 6Cell Differentiation and Stem Cells→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 18–21
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems
- explain the need for cell differentiation to produce specialised cells
- discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using stem cells in medicine.
🔑 Key Words
- adult stem cell: stem cell that can differentiate into one of a small range of specialised cells
- differentiation:a process during which a cell changes in structure to be able to perform a particular function
- embryonic stem cell: stem cell that can differentiate into any specialised cell
- ethics: what people believe is fair or right or wrong
- meristem:area of stem cells found near the growing part of a root or shoot in plants
- mitosis: type of cell division in which one cell becomes two identical cells
- organ system: a group of organs working together to perform an important job
- organ: a group of tissues working together to perform an important job
- stem cell:an undifferentiated cell that can give rise to other types of cells
- tissue: a group of the same type of cells working together
- zygote:a single cell formed by the fusion of a male and a female sex cell
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Handle glass slides and coverslips carefully — they break easily and can be sharp.
Lesson 7Biological Molecules 1 – Carbohydrates→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 53–55 and 58
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates
- 2.8 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugars, protein from amino acids, and lipid from fatty acids and glycerol
- 2.9 practical: investigate food samples for the presence of glucose and starch
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recognise that carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are organic molecules
- name the reagents used to test for glucose and starch
- carry out tests for simple sugars (glucose) and starch (part of Core Practical 1) and know the positive results when testing for glucose and starch
- recognise that starch and simple sugars are carbohydrates and how starch is synthesised from, and can be broken down into, simple sugars.
🔑 Key Words
- element:a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler forms
- macromolecules:large molecules
- precipitate:solid particles that sometimes form in a solution
- reagents:chemicals used to analyse substances
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should wash any splashed liquids quickly from skin.
- • Students should not taste any of the food.
- • Ask students to take care with hot water in the water bath.
- • Remind students that Benedict’s solution can be harmful to skin and eyes.
- • Students should report any spillages and wash hands after finishing.
Lesson 8Biological Molecules 2 – Lipids and Proteins→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 54–55 and 58
📚 Specification Points
- 2.7 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates
- 2.8 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugars, protein from amino acids, and lipid from fatty acids and glycerol
- 2.9 practical: investigate food samples for the presence of glucose and starch
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe lipids as fats and oils, made of the subunits glycerol and fatty acids and describe proteins as polymers of amino acids
- name the reagents used to test for lipids and proteins
- carry out tests for lipids and proteins (part of Core Practical 1) and know the positive results when testing for lipids and proteins.
🔑 Key Words
- emulsion: droplets of one liquid suspended in another liquid
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should wash any splashed liquids quickly from skin.
- • Students should not taste any of the food.
- • Remind students that biuret reagent is corrosive and can be harmful to skin and eyes.
- • Students should report any spillages and wash hands after finishing.
Lesson 9Enzyme Action and the Effect of Temperature→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 6–12
📚 Specification Points
- 2.10 understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions
- 2.11 understand how temperature changes can affect enzyme function, including changes to the shape of active site
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term biological catalyst
- explain the action of enzymes on substrates
- explain the effect of temperature on enzyme activity.
🔑 Key Words
- active site: a part of an enzyme molecule with a specific shape where a particular substrate will bind
- catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed
- denatured: when the shape of an enzyme's active site has been changed so that it no longer fits a particular substrate and the enzyme cannot work
- optimum temperature: the temperature at which the rate of a reaction is the fastest
- substrate: a substance on which an enzyme acts
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should take care when using hydrogen peroxide solution – it can cause irritation.
- • Students should take care when using the glowing splint which relights with the oxygen.
- • Remind students that hydrogen peroxide is made during respiration and can damage tissues so it has to be broken down quickly by the enzyme catalase.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 7–10
📚 Specification Points
- 2.12 practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperatures
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a method that can be used to investigate the effect of temperature on enzyme activity
- explain the control variables in an investigation on the effect of temperature on enzyme activity
- interpret data from an investigation on the effect of temperature on enzyme activity and calculate rates of reaction.
🔑 Key Words
- control:the part of an experiment that is the standard to which the results can be compared
- control variable:a factor that is kept constant throughout an investigation
- variable:a factor in an investigation that can affect the outcome of the investigation
Lesson 11The Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 8
📚 Specification Points
- 2.13 understand how enzyme function can be affected by changes in pH altering the active site
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the effect of pH on acidity and alkalinity
- explain the effect of pH on enzyme activity
- interpret data to identify the optimum pH value for different enzymes.
🔑 Key Words
- alkali: a soluble base
- pH: the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Acids have a pH value of below 7. Alkalis have a pH value of above 7. A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral.
- base: hydroxides of alkaline metals and solutions of ammonia; bases neutralise acids by reacting with the free hydrogen ions in an acid solution
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not directly touch any of the substances.
- • Report and deal with any spillages according to your school’s guidelines and any local or national regulations.
- • How precise are the universal indicator solution readings ? (Answer: not as precise as pH probe as we do not get a reading in between whole numbers.)
- • Students should not directly touch any of the substances.
- • Students should report any spillages.
- • Students should wash hands after the practical.
- • Remind students that each substance should be clearly labelled and with its own pipette or spatula so there is no cross-contamination as students take some of the substance onto a dimple tile to test for pH.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 8 and 11
Lab Book: Pages 10–12
📚 Specification Points
- 2.13 understand how enzyme function can be affected by changes in pH affecting the active site
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a method that can be used to investigate the effect of pH on enzyme activity
- explain the control variables in an investigation on the effect of pH on enzyme activity
- interpret data from an investigation on the effect of pH on enzyme activity and calculate rates of reaction.
🔑 Key Words
- accuracy: how close results are to a true value. For example, how well does a measuring instrument determine the variable it is meant to measure?
- anomalous result: a result that does not fit the pattern of other results
- precision: how consistent results are if measurements are repeated
- reliability: how consistently a method measures something. If a test is repeated and produces exactly the same result, it is 10⁰% reliable.
- validity: whether the results really measure what the investigation intends to measure. For example, does changing temperature really affect enzyme action, or are other factors involved?
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection.
- • Students should not drink any of the liquids.
- • Students should wash any splashes quickly from skin. Enzymes/pepsin are irritants and can cause allergic reactions or asthma symptoms.
- • Students should wash off any chemical splashes immediately.
- • Remind students to take care with the buffer and enzyme solutions.
- • Students should not be tempted to extend the range of pH higher than 8 because strong alkalis break down proteins and this will give confusing and false data. You could even leave out pH 8 and just use the range 1–7.
Lesson 15Transport of Substances in and out of Cells→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 16–18
📚 Specification Points
- 2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify substances that move by diffusion, osmosis and active transport
- describe the difference between diffusion and osmosis
- explain the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
🔑 Key Words
- active transport: the pumping of particles across a membrane, usually against the concentration gradient. This process requires energy.
- concentrated: a concentrated solution contains many solute molecules in a certain volume of solvent
- concentration gradient: the difference in the concentration of molecules between two regions in a solution. There will be an overall movement of particles down a concentration gradient, from higher concentration to lower concentration.
- diffusion: the random movement and spreading of particles. There is a net (overall) diffusion of particles from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration .
- dilute: a dilute solution contains few solute molecules in a certain volume of solvent
- flaccid: when a cell has lost internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm no longer pushes out against the cell membrane (and cell wall, in plants)
- osmosis: the overall movement of solvent molecules in a solution across a partially permeable membrane, from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one
- partially permeable: describes a membrane that allows certain small particles through it but not larger ones
- turgid: when a cell has high internal pressure, so that the cytoplasm pushes out against the cell membrane (and cell wall, in plants)
Lesson 16Factors Affecting Diffusion→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 16–17
📚 Specification Points
- 2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use a model to investigate how cells get the substances they need
- describe and calculate surface area to volume ratios
- describe the effect of surface area to volume ratio on the time needed for a cell to obtain all the substances it needs.
🔑 Key Words
- surface area to volume ratio (SA : V):a measure of the surface area available for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume. It is shown as a ratio or calculated by dividing surface area by volume. A small cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a large cell. So, a small cell has more surface area for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume.
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection
- • Students should be careful to not touch the cubes with their fingers and rinse any splashes immediately
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 16
📚 Specification Points
- 2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells
- 2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain how the rate of diffusion into and out of cells depends on:
- surface area
- distance
- concentration gradient
- temperature
- explain how cells and exchange surfaces increase their efficiency by:increasing their surface area to volume ratiohaving shapes (e.g. flattened to decrease diffusion distance)maintaining concentration gradients.
- increasing their surface area to volume ratio
- having shapes (e.g. flattened to decrease diffusion distance)
- maintaining concentration gradients.
🔑 Key Words
- proportional: a relationship between two variables in which doubling of one variable doubles the other. This is also called a directly proportional relationship.
- inversely proportional: a relationship between two variables in which doubling one variable halves the other
Lesson 19Ways That Molecules Move→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 16–18 and 156
📚 Specification Points
- 2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells
- 2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use a microscope to observe cells
- identify where and why diffusion, osmosis and active transport occur in cells.
🔑 Key Words
- isotonic:a solution that has the same solute concentration as another solution
- root hair cell: specialised plant cell found on the outsides of roots. It has a cell extension (that looks like a hair) giving it a large surface area to volume ratio for efficient absorption of water and mineral ions.
Lesson 20Obtaining Energy Currency→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 12–13
📚 Specification Points
- 2.34 understand how the process of respiration produces ATP in living organisms
- 2.35 know that ATP provides energy for cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the word equation for aerobic respiration
- describe how ATP is produced
- explain the role of ATP in a cell.
🔑 Key Words
- aerobic respiration: chemical reaction in the mitochondria of cells, in which glucose is broken down using oxygen. The reaction releases energy from glucose.
- ATP: substance from which energy can be released very quickly. Short for adenosine triphosphate.
- glucose: sugar (carbohydrate) used for respiration. Its breakdown releases energy for a cell.
- metabolism: all the chemical reactions in an organism
- rate of respiration: the speed at which the reactions of respiration take place in cells
Lesson 21Respiration in Living Organisms→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 12–15
📚 Specification Points
- 2.36 describe the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
- 2.37 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for aerobic respiration in living organisms
- 2.38 know the word equation for anaerobic respiration in plants and in animals
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the word equations for aerobic and anaerobic respiration in plants and animals
- recall the symbol equation for aerobic respiration
- explain why respiration increases temperature
- compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
🔑 Key Words
- anaerobic respiration:the release of energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen
- lactate:substance produced during anaerobic respiration in animals
- lactic acid:used as another term for lactate in word equations for anaerobic respiration
- oxygen debt:the additional oxygen needed after exercise in which anaerobic respiration has supplied a lot of energy
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear eye protection when handling disinfectant solutions.
- • Students should take care when boiling the peas.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 282–284
📚 Specification Points
- 5.5 understand the role of yeast in the production of food including bread
- 5.6 practical: investigate the role of anaerobic respiration by yeast in different conditions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide from yeast during anaerobic respiration
- explain why yeast is used to make bread dough rise and to produce alcoholic drinks
- identify quantitative data as being discrete or continuous.
🔑 Key Words
- discrete: data in which values can only have certain numbers is discrete. For example, shoe sizes are discrete. Compare this with foot length.
- continuous: data in which any value is possible within a certain range is continuous. For example, foot length is continuous. Compare this with shoe sizes.
- fermentation: using anaerobic respiration in microorganisms to produce useful products. However, the word is sometimes used to mean any metabolic process in microorganisms.
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 27Our Survival Depends on the Sun→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 5–6 and 135–138
📚 Specification Points
- 2.18 understand the process of photosynthesis and its importance in the conversion of light energy to chemical energy
- 2.19 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for photosynthesis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the reactants and products for photosynthesis
- recall the word and symbol equations for photosynthesis
- describe the reaction of photosynthesis and its importance.
🔑 Key Words
- biomass: the total mass of organic matter in organisms
- chlorosis: yellowing of plant leaves as a result of mineral deficiency or infection
- stomata (singular, stoma): small openings on the lower surface of a leaf through which gases can diffuse
- xylem: tissue that is found in plant leaves, stems and roots and is responsible for the transport of water and mineral ions from the roots to other parts of the plant
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
Lesson 28Core Practical – Factors that Affect Photosynthesis→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 142–144 and 149–151
Lab Book: Pages 25–26
📚 Specification Points
- 2.20 understand how varying carbon dioxide concentration, light intensity and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis
- 2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, showing the evolution of oxygen from a water plant
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis
- analyse data from investigations into how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis
- explain how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis.
🔑 Key Words
- limiting factor: any factor that, when not available in sufficient amounts, slows down the rate of a reaction; the factor that is in shortest supply will be the main limiting factor
- independent variable: the condition you change
- dependent variable: the variable that depends on the condition you change
- control variable: a variable that does not change
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout the practical.
- Wash hands after handling plant material. Check for allergies before handling seeds.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 29Core Practical – The Structure of a Leaf→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 136–140
Lab Book: Pages 29–30
📚 Specification Points
- 2.21 describe the structure of the leaf and explain how it is adapted for photosynthesis
- 2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, the production of starch and the requirements of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll
🎯 Learning Objectives
- label a diagram of a cross-section of a leaf
- describe the functions of the different tissues in a leaf
- explain how the structure of a leaf adapts it for its function of photosynthesis.
🔑 Key Words
- palisade mesophyll: column-shaped cells near the upper surface of the leaf, packed with chloroplasts for photosynthesis
- spongy mesophyll: loosely packed cells with air spaces to allow gas diffusion
- epidermis: outer layer of cells on the leaf surface
- cuticle: waxy waterproof layer on the leaf surface that reduces water loss
- stomata: small pores on the underside of a leaf that allow gas exchange
- vascular bundle: group of xylem and phloem vessels in a leaf
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Take care with slides and coverslips. They break easily and can be sharp.
- • There are no safety considerations to consider with setting up this practical.
Lesson 30Core Practical – Photosynthesis Investigations→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 136–138
Lab Book: Pages 27−30
📚 Specification Points
- 2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, the production of starch and the requirements of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll
🎯 Learning Objectives
- test variegated leaves for the presence of starch
- test leaves that have been left in the light and dark for the presence of starch
- test leaves that have been deprived of carbon dioxide for the presence of starch.
🔑 Key Words
- iodine test: a test for starch; iodine solution turns blue-black in the presence of starch
- destarching: leaving a plant in the dark so it uses up its starch reserves
- chlorophyll: green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis
- variegated: a leaf with areas of green and white, where white areas lack chlorophyll
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection throughout this practical.
- Take care with ethanol.
- Take care with hot water.
- Remember that ethanol is flammable. Keep it away from flames.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Take care with staining solutions; they can stain skin and clothing. Wash off splashes immediately.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 32Increasing Yield Using Glasshouses→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 147 and 206–207
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain crops
- 5.2 understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand that glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase yield for some crops
- identify how factors can be controlled in a polythene tunnel and glasshouse
- explain the effects of increasing carbon dioxide and temperature on the growth of plants in glasshouse
- understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses.
🔑 Key Words
- glasshouse: an enclosed structure made of glass or plastic used to control growing conditions
- polythene tunnel: a tunnel covered in clear polythene used to increase crop yield
- yield: the amount of useful product obtained from a crop
- photosynthesis rate: the speed at which a plant converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose using light energy
Lesson 37Diffusion in Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 16−18, 70−71 and 160
📚 Specification Points
- 2.51 understand why simple, unicellular organisms can rely on diffusion for movement of substances in and out of the cell
- 2.52 understand the need for a transport system in multicellular organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the definition of diffusion
- calculate surface area to volume ratios for small and large objects
- explain why some organisms need a transport system, whereas others do not.
🔑 Key Words
- blood vessel: any tube that carries blood in the circulatory system
- capillary: narrowest type of blood vessel in the circulatory system
- circulatory system: organ system in animals that uses blood to carry substances to and from cells in tissues
- diffusion: the random movement and spreading of particles; there is a net (overall) diffusion of particles from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration
- phloem tube: tube that carries sugars (and other substances for growth and repair) around a plant
- surface area to volume ratio (SA : V): a measure of the surface area available for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume. It is shown as a ratio or calculated by dividing surface area by volume. A small cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a large cell. So, a small cell has more surface area for substances to enter and leave a unit of volume
- vascular bundle: collection of both xylem vessels and phloem tubes in a plant
- xylem vessel: tube that carries water (and dissolved mineral ions) up through a plant
Lesson 52The Human Alimentary Canal→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 62–66
📚 Specification Points
- 2.27 describe the structure and function of the human alimentary canal, including the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum and ileum), large intestine (colon and rectum) and pancreas
🎯 Learning Objectives
- label the components of the human digestive system
- describe the function of the components of the human alimentary canal
- explain how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis.
🔑 Key Words
- alimentary canal: the gut or digestive tract; consists of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus
- bolus: ball of food
- digestion: breaking down of large molecules to smaller, soluble molecules
- digestive system: organ system for digesting food; consists of the alimentary canal plus the salivary glands, liver and pancreas
- enzyme: biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions in the body
- gut: alimentary canal or digestive tract
- peristalsis: a series of wave-like muscle contractions that move substances through tubes in the body e.g. moving food along the alimentary canal
Lesson 53Core Practical – The Process of Digestion→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 64–65
Lab Book: Pages 15–16
📚 Specification Points
- 2.29 understand the role of digestive enzymes, including the digestion of starch to glucose by amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to amino acids by proteases and the digestion of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the role of enzymes in digestion
- explain the digestion reactions catalysed by amylase, maltase, proteases and lipases
- explain why starch, proteins and lipids must be digested.
🔑 Key Words
- catabolic: a type of metabolic reaction where large molecules are broken down to smaller molecules
- gastric: to do with the stomach
- metabolic: to do with metabolism; it involves all the chemical reactions in cells that keep living organisms alive
- monomer: smaller units from which polymer molecules are made
- polymer: large molecules made from many monomers joined together; examples include proteins, starch, glycogen, cellulose and nucleic acids
- product: molecules produced during a reaction
- reactant: molecules taking part in a reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not drink any of the solutions.
- • Take care with hot water in the water bath.
- • Remember that Benedict’s solution can be harmful to skin and eyes.
Lesson 55The Process of Ventilation→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 39–42
📚 Specification Points
- 2.46 describe the structure of the thorax, including the ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and pleural membranes
- 2.47 understand the role of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm in ventilation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know the structures involved in ventilation (breathing)
- describe the functions of the different structures involved in ventilation
- explain the process of inhalation (breathing in) and exhalation (breathing out).
🔑 Key Words
- bronchi: part of the airways; they are fine branching tubes leading from the trachea into the lungs
- bronchioles: part of the airways; they are very fine branching tubes leading from the bronchi to the alveoli
- diaphragm: fibrous and muscular sheet of tissue that divides the thorax from the abdomen; its movements change the volume of the thorax and bring about ventilation
- intercostal muscles: muscles between the ribs; contraction of the muscles raises the ribcage up and out for inhalation
- thorax: chest
- trachea: airway; the tube carrying inspired air from the nose/mouth to the bronchi, each of which supplies a lung; the trachea also carries expired air from the lungs to the nose/mouth
Lesson 59Components of Blood→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 78–80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.59 describe the composition of the blood: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
- 2.60 understand the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat energy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- list and identify blood components
- recall the functions of blood components
- explain the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat energy.
🔑 Key Words
- endocrine gland: gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood
- erythrocyte: another term for red blood cell
- haemoglobin: substance in red blood cells that can combine with oxygen
- hormone: a substance that can trigger changes in cells when they detect it
- leucocyte: another term for white blood cell
- lymphocyte: type of white blood cell that produces antibodies
- phagocyte: type of white blood cell that can engulf pathogens
- urea: a waste product formed from the breakdown of amino acids
Lesson 61The Immune System→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 79–80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.62 understand how the immune system responds to disease using white blood cells, illustrated by phagocytes ingesting pathogens and lymphocytes releasing antibodies specific to the pathogen
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the role of phagocytes and lymphocytes
- explain the role of phagocytes in engulfing pathogens
- explain the role of lymphocytes in the production of antibodies to a specific pathogen.
🔑 Key Words
- antibody:protein produced by lymphocytes in response to a particular antigen
- antigen: protein marker found on the surface of cells
- complementary: term used in biology to describe two things that fit together
- immune response: response by the immune system (such as a release of antibodies)
- immune system: body system that protects against diseases caused by pathogens
- phagocytosis:the process during which phagocytes ingest and destroy pathogens
Lesson 63The Structure and Function of the Heart→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 73–75
📚 Specification Points
- 2.65 describe the structure of the heart and how it functions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the structure of the heart and identify its major parts
- describe how the heart pumps and the flow of blood through it
- describe the differences in blood oxygenation on different sides of the heart and in the different blood vessels.
🔑 Key Words
- aorta: major artery leading out of the heart, carrying blood to most of the body
- artery: blood vessel that transports blood away from the heart
- atrium: upper chamber in the heart that receives blood from the veins
- bicuspid valve: valve between the left atrium and left ventricle
- cardiac muscle: specialised muscle tissue found in the walls of the heart
- circulatory system: system that moves blood through the body; it consists of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries and blood
- coronary artery: artery supplying the cardiac muscle with blood
- double circulatory system: circulatory system in which blood flows through the heart twice
- heartbeat: a complete cycle of the heart’s pumping, from when the atria are full of blood until the next time the atria are full
- heart rate: number of heartbeats in a unit of time, usually per minute (beats/min)
- heart valve: flap of tissue between chambers in the heart that stops blood flowing in the wrong direction when the heart muscle contracts
- pulmonary artery: blood vessel carrying deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
- pulmonary vein: blood vessel carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
- pulse: shockwave that travels through the walls of arteries leading from the heart
- semi-lunar valve: valve between a ventricle and an artery leaving the heart
- septum: muscular wall that separates the heart into two halves and prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
- tricuspid valve: valve between the right atrium and right ventricle
- vein: blood vessel that transports blood towards the heart
- vena cava: major vein leading to the heart, carrying blood back from most of the body (and divided into two parts)
- ventricle: lower chamber in the heart that pumps blood out into the arteries
Lesson 65The Structure and Function of Blood Vessels→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 76–77
📚 Specification Points
- 2.68 understand how the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries relate to their function
- 2.69 understand the general structure of the circulation system, including the blood vessels to and from the heart and lungs, liver and kidneys
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall the functions of arteries, veins and capillaries
- explain how the structures of arteries, veins and capillaries are adapted for their functions
- recall the names and positions of major blood vessels in the circulatory system.
🔑 Key Words
- hepatic artery: takes blood from the aorta to the liver
- hepatic portal vein: carries blood from the intestines to the liver
- hepatic vein: takes blood from the liver to the vena cava
- lumen: the space in a tube in which a fluid flows
- mesenteric artery: carries blood from the aorta to the intestines
- renal artery: carries blood from the aorta to the kidneys
- renal vein: carries blood from the kidneys to the vena cava
- tissue fluid: a fluid that forms from blood plasma, and which surrounds all cells
Lesson 81Reproduction→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 118–121 and 126–128
📚 Specification Points
- 3.1 understand the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
- 3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
- describe the process of fertilisation
- explain the stages involved in the production of an embryo.
🔑 Key Words
- diploid: a cell that has two sets of chromosomes; in humans the diploid number is 46
- embryo: a ball of cells that has formed after the zygote starts to divide
- fertilisation: fusion of a male and a female gamete
- fetus: an unborn offspring that develops from an embryo (in humans, from 9 weeks onwards)
- gametes: specialised sex cells that fuse during fertilisation in sexual reproduction
- haploid: a cell that has one set of chromosomes; in humans the haploid number is 23
- meiosis: a type of cell division which gives rise to haploid gametes
- mitosis: a type of cell division after which genetically identical cells are produced
- variation: differences in genetic makeup and/or features in an organism
- zygote: the single diploid cell that is formed after fertilisation
Lesson 82Reproduction in Plants→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 174–181
📚 Specification Points
- 3.3 describe the structures of an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower and explain how each is adapted for pollination
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that pollination is part of sexual reproduction
- describe the structures and functions for insect- and wind-pollinated flowers
- explain how pollination occurs for insect- or wind-pollinated flowers.
🔑 Key Words
- pollination: the process used to transfer pollen from the anthers (of one flower) to the stigma (of another flower or of the same flower)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with sharp instruments. Cut away from the body. Follow dissection safety guidelines.
Lesson 85The Human Reproductive System→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 118–123 and 126
📚 Specification Points
- 3.8 understand how the structure of the male and female reproductive systems are adapted for their functions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- outline the process of human reproduction
- explain how the structures of the male reproductive system are adapted to their function
- explain how structures of the female reproductive system are adapted to their function.
🔑 Key Words
- ovary: the female organ that produces egg cells (ova)
- testis: the male organ that produces sperm cells
- oviduct: the tube that carries the egg from the ovary to the uterus; also called the fallopian tube
- uterus: the organ where a fertilised egg implants and develops during pregnancy
- sperm: the male sex cell
- fertilisation: the fusion of a male and female gamete to form a zygote
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 118–126
📚 Specification Points
- 3.13 understand the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary sexual characteristics
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the roles of the placenta and the amnion in pregnancy
- describe the secondary sexual characteristics for males and females
- explain the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
🔑 Key Words
- amnion: a membrane that surrounds a fetus and secretes amniotic fluid
- blastocyst: a hollow ball of cells developed from the morula by further mitotic cell divisions; some of the cells have differentiated; there is a space called the blastocoel in the centre and the outer layers of cells are called the trophoblast
- chorion: the outermost membrane of a fetus that assists with the formation of the placenta
- morula: a ball of 16 cells, developed from mitotic divisions of the zygote, that forms during the early development of an embryo
- placenta: a temporary organ at the uterus wall that allows exchange of substances between mother and fetus during pregnancy
- secondary sexual characteristics: sexual features that develop in males and females at puberty
Lesson 88DNA and RNA→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 227–230
📚 Specification Points
- 3.15 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms genome, gene and chromosome
- describe the molecular structure of DNA
- compare the molecular structures of DNA and RNA.
🔑 Key Words
- gene: a length of DNA that codes for one (or more) specific proteins
- genome: the total genetic content of an individual
- helix: (plural – helices) coil
- nucleotide: monomer of nucleic acid; consists of a sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate
Lesson 91Meiosis→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 242–248, 256–257
📚 Specification Points
- 3.26 understand how the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a male
- 3.27 describe the determination of the sex of offspring at fertilisation, using a genetic diagram
- 3.31 understand how random fertilisation produces genetic variation of offspring
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process and outcome for meiosis
- explain how fertilisation leads to genetic variation in offspring
- explain how the sex of offspring is determined at fertilisation.
🔑 Key Words
- allele: version of a gene
- autosomes: chromosomes not involved in determining the sex of an individual
- chromatin: the DNA and associated proteins that are in eukaryotic nuclei and that condense into chromosomes just before mitosis or meiosis
- gonads: organs where sex cells are made; ovaries and testes in animals; ovaries and anthers in flowering plants
Lesson 92Monohybrid Inheritance→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 233–237 and 249–258
📚 Specification Points
- 3.19 understand how genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics
- 3.20 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, and genotype
- 3.23 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
- 3.25 predict probabilities and outcomes from monohybrid crosses
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms allele, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype and genotype
- use genetic diagrams to show monohybrid inheritance
- predict the probabilities and outcomes from monohybrid crosses
- interpret pedigree diagrams.
🔑 Key Words
- dominant: the allele in a heterozygous person, that is expressed and can be seen in the phenotype – even if there is also a recessive allele of that gene present
- counsellor: a person trained to give guidance
- genotype: type of alleles present for a particular trait
- heterozygous: having different alleles at a particular gene locus
- homozygous: having two identical alleles at a particular gene locus
- mutation: change to the DNA / genetic material
- pedigree diagram: genetic family tree that shows occurrence of phenotypes, for a particular gene, in three generations
- phenotype: observable characteristic(s)
- recessive: allele in a heterozygote that is not seen in the phenotype if a dominant allele is also present
Lesson 97The Effect of Mutations on Variation→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 233–234 and 238–239
📚 Specification Points
- 3.33 understand that variation within a species can be genetic, environmental or a combination of both
- 3.34 understand that mutation is a rare, random change in genetic material that may be inherited
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the causes of variation within a species
- describe the effects of a change in DNA sequence on the structure of proteins
- explain the effect of genetic mutation on the phenotype.
🔑 Key Words
- mutagen: something that causes a mutation
Lesson 98Evolution→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 261–267
📚 Specification Points
- 3.38 explain Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the features that increase the incidence of mutations
- explain Darwin’s theory of natural selection as a mechanism for evolution
- explain how natural selection increases resistance to antibiotics in bacterial populations, why this is an example of evolution, and why it is a problem.
🔑 Key Words
- evolution: the gradual change in the inherited characteristics of a population over many generations
- natural selection: the process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
- mutation: a random change in a gene or chromosome
- adaptation: a feature that helps an organism survive in its environment
- variation: differences between individuals of the same species
Lesson 99Genetic Engineering→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 289–297
📚 Specification Points
- 5.12 understand how restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes are used to join pieces of DNA together
- 5.13 understand how plasmids and viruses can act as vectors, which take up pieces of DNA, and then insert this recombinant DNA into other cells
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the function of restriction enzymes, ligase enzymes, plasmids and viruses in genetic engineering
- explain how DNA can be inserted into a plasmid
- explain the processes that can be used to insert recombinant DNA into other cells.
🔑 Key Words
- ligase: an enzyme that catalyses the joining together of lengths of DNA
- recognition site: sequence of nucleotide bases in a length of DNA that are acted on by the restriction enzyme
- restriction enzyme: enzyme that cuts DNA; its active site fits the shape of a specific recognition site
- vector: carrier
Lesson 100Genetically Modified Organisms→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 289–297 and 284–288, 301–302
📚 Specification Points
- 5.14 understand how a large amount of insulin can be manufactured from genetically modified bacteria that are grown in a fermenter
- 5.15 understand how genetically modified plants can be used to improve food production
- 5.16 understand that the term transgenic means the transfer of genetic material from one species to a different species
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how bacteria can be genetically modified to produce human insulin
- describe the process and benefits of growing genetically modified bacteria in a fermenter
- describe how viruses can be used to produce genetically modified plants
- explain how genetically modified plants can be used to improve food production.
🔑 Key Words
- genetically modified organism (GMO): an organism whose DNA has been altered by genetic engineering
- transgenic: describing an organism that contains genetic material from another species
- fermenter: a large vessel used to grow microorganisms on an industrial scale
- genetic engineering: the process of modifying an organism's DNA by adding genes from another organism
Lesson 103Ecosystems and Factors Affecting Them→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 187–193
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 understand the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem
- 4.5 understand how abiotic and biotic factors affect the population size and distribution of organisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem
- apply the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem to examples
- explain how biotic and abiotic factors affect population size and the distribution of organisms.
🔑 Key Words
- abiotic factor: variable caused by non-living things that can change an ecosystem (e.g. light intensity, temperature, pH)
- bias: when data has been influenced by a person
- biotic factor: variable caused by living things that can change an ecosystem (e.g. predation, competition, food availability, disease)
- consumer: organism that eats other organisms for food
- decomposer: fungus or microorganism that feeds on and breaks down animal wastes and / or dead organisms
- ecosystem: all the living organisms and non-living factors that interact with one another in an area
- estimate: approximate value
- habitat: place in which an organism lives (e.g. desert, seashore)
- producer: organism that produces its own food (e.g. plants, algae)
- quadrat: square frame of known area, such as 1 m² , that is placed on the ground to get a sample of the organisms living in an area
- sample: small part of something; if you sample something, you take a small part of it – you use your results from the sample to estimate what the rest of the thing is like
Lesson 104Core Practical – Investigating Population Size→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 189–190
Lab Book: Pages 61–64
📚 Specification Points
- 4.2 practical: investigate the population size of an organism in two different areas using quadrats
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how to use a quadrat to sample a habitat
- use sample data to estimate population size
- explain how to collect samples so that accurate population estimates can be calculated.
🔑 Key Words
- bias: when data has been influenced by a person
- quadrat: square frame of known area, such as 1 m², that is placed on the ground to get a sample of the organisms living in that area
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care in the field. Be aware of uneven ground, stinging plants, and wildlife. Wash hands after fieldwork.
Lesson 106Feeding Relationships→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 194−196
📚 Specification Points
- 4.6 understand the names given to different trophic levels, including producers, primary, secondary and tertiary consumers and decomposers
- 4.7 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transfer
- 4.8 understand the transfer of substances and energy along a food chain
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the different trophic levels of feeding relationships in an ecosystem
- construct and interpret food chains and food webs
- explain the concepts of a pyramid of numbers and a pyramid of biomass.
🔑 Key Words
- biomass: total mass of a living thing or group of living things (usually ‘dry mass’, which is the mass without water)
- carnivore: animal that eats other animals
- consumer: organism that eats other organisms for food
- decomposer: fungus, microorganism or invertebrate that feeds on and breaks down animal wastes and / or dead organisms
- food chain: way to represent the energy in food that is passed from one organism to another
- food web: way to show how several food chains are interconnected in an ecosystem
- herbivore: animal that eats plants
- omnivore: animal that eats both plants and animals
- predator: organism that catches and eats other animals for food
- prey: animal that is food for a predator
- primary consumer: the first consumer in a food chain; herbivores are primary consumers
- producer: organism that produces its own food (e.g. plants, algae)
- pyramid of biomass: diagram showing trophic levels in a food chain stacked on top of each other, with the lengths of each bar representing biomass
- pyramid of numbers: diagram showing trophic levels in a food chain stacked on top of each other, with the lengths of each bar representing the total number of individuals
- secondary consumer: second consumer in a food chain
- tertiary consumer: third consumer in a food chain
- top carnivore: last animal in a food chain, with no predators; also called an apex predator
- trophic level: position of an organism in food chains in an ecosystem
Lesson 107Energy Transfer→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 208–210
📚 Specification Points
- 4.7 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids ofbiomass and pyramids of energy transfer
- 4.8 understand the transfer of substances and energy along a food chain
- 4.9 understand why only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use pyramids of energy transfer to model the transfer of energy along a food chain
- explain how some energy is transferred to the next trophic level, and why most energy is not transferred
- explain the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control on crop plants.
🔑 Key Words
- bioaccumulation: build-up of persistent substances in the bodies of organisms
- biological control: controlling pests using natural consumers of pest organisms
- biomagnification: increase in the concentration of persistent substances along a food chain
- persistent pesticide: artificial substance used to kill pests that does not break down in the environment and so lasts for a very long time
- pest: organism that damages things that humans want to use (e.g. crops)
- pesticide resistance: when a pest is no longer affected by a pesticide (due to natural selection)
- pesticide: substance used for controlling or killing pests
- pyramid of energy transfer: diagram showing trophic levels in a food chain stacked on top of each other, with the length of each bar representing energy
- yield: the amount of useful product obtained from an organism
Lesson 109The Carbon Cycle→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 197–198 and 215–216
📚 Specification Points
- 4.10 describe the stages in the carbon cycle, including respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition and combustion
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how carbon is recycled in the environment, through the carbon cycle
- describe the effects of respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition and combustion on the balance of gases in the atmosphere
- explain a range of effects caused by deforestation: flooding, erosion, leaching, local temperature increase.
🔑 Key Words
- assimilation: the processes by which organisms get nutrients and make them into new substances in their bodies
- biodiversity: how varied the organisms in an area are; the most biodiverse areas contain a lot of different species and many individuals of each species
- carbon cycle: the series of processes by which carbon atoms are recycled in the environment
- combustion: a chemical reaction that takes place between oxygen and certain fuels; carbon dioxide and water are released, and energy is released
- decomposition: breaking down large, complex organic molecules into simpler ones
- deforestation: clearing of forests (e.g. for farming, housing)
- erosion: when soil or rock particles are carried away by water, glaciers or the wind
- evapotranspiration: water vapour entering the atmosphere by transpiration from plants and evaporation from the soil
- fossil fuel: fuel made from prehistoric organisms by certain fossilisation processes
- fossilisation: a process that preserves parts of prehistoric organisms or traces of them
- leaching: a process in which soluble mineral ions are dissolved and washed out of soil by flowing water
- organic compound: a compound that contains carbon–carbon and / or carbon–hydrogen bonds
- transpiration: evaporation of water from the surface of a plant
⚗️ Chemistry
Lesson 1States of Matter→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 3–6
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 understand the three states of matter in terms of the arrangement, movement, and energy of the particles
- 1.2 understand the interconversions between the three states of matter in terms of: • the names of the interconversions • how they are achieved • the changes in arrangement, movement, and energy of the particles
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the arrangement, movement, and energy of the particles in the three states of matter
- link the properties of the three states of matter to the particle arrangements
- explain how changes of state are achieved.
🔑 Key Words
- boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid boils and changes to a gas
- condensing: the change of state from a gas to a liquid
- density: the mass per unit volume; it represents how tightly packed the particles are in a fixed volume
- deposition: the change of state from a gas directly to a solid
- evaporation: the change of state from a liquid to a gas that occurs below the boiling point and only at the surface of a liquid
- freezing: the change of state from a liquid to a solid
- melting point: the temperature at which a solid melts and changes to a liquid
- particle model: a way of describing the arrangement and movement of particles
- physical property: any characteristic of a substance that can be determined without changing the substance’s chemical identity
- state of matter: the condition in which matter exists (solid, liquid or gas)
- sublimation: the change of state from a solid directly to a gas
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • Care should be taken with hot apparatus.
Lesson 2Diffusion and Solutions→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 6–9
📚 Specification Points
- 1.3 understand how the results of experiments involving the dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion of gases can be explained
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms diffusion, solvent, solute, solution and saturated
- describe and use the example of potassium manganate (VII) changing colour when it is diluted
- explain the results of experiments involving the dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion of gases
- describe how a solution is made
- define the term solubility in the units g per 10⁰ g of solvent.
🔑 Key Words
- diffusion: the spreading out of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- solvent: the liquid in which a solute dissolves to form a solution
- solute: the substance that dissolves in a solvent
- solution: a mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
- saturated solution: a solution in which no more solute can dissolve at that temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
Lesson 4Elements, Compounds and Mixtures→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 14–16 and 22
📚 Specification Points
- 1.8 understand how to classify a substance as an element, compound, or mixture
- 1.9 understand that a pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling point, but that a mixture may melt or boil over a range of temperatures
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms element, compound, and mixture
- identify elements, compounds, and mixtures from particle diagrams
- identify elements, compounds, and mixtures from names/formulae
- describe the difference in melting and boiling points between pure substances and mixtures.
🔑 Key Words
- atom: the smallest piece of an element that can still be recognised as that element
- atomic number: the number of protons in an atom
- compound: a substance that forms when two or more elements chemically combine; the elements cannot be separated by physical means
- element: a substance that cannot be split into anything simpler by chemical means; all atoms in an element have the same atomic number
- mixture: two or more substances that are not chemically combined and that can be separated by physical means
- particle: a small object; in chemistry, particle can be used to refer to atoms, molecules, ions, or the subatomic particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons
- pure: a single substance with a fixed composition that does not have anything else mixed with it
Lesson 5Separating Mixtures→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 14–17
📚 Specification Points
- 1.8 understand how to classify a substance as an element, compound, or mixture
- 1.10 describe these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures: • filtration • crystallisation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why mixtures are easy to separate, whereas compounds are not
- describe the processes of filtration and crystallisation
- describe how a mixture of salt and sand may be separated.
🔑 Key Words
- crystallisation: a process in which a solute (soluble solid) is obtained from a solvent
- filtrate: the liquid that passes through the filter paper during filtration
- filtration: a process to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid
- residue: the substance left on the filter paper after filtration
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye-protection should be worn during this demonstration and heatproof gloves worn when handing hot equipment.
- • Ensure that you are entirely satisfied with student plans before they carry them out. An additional risk assessment is advised as groups will be using various pieces of equipment but at different times. For example, you might decide on having one part of the lab where heating happens, and filtering in another area, or you might insist on precautions for heating throughout (i.e., wearing eye protection, long hair tied back) regardless of the low risk of filtering a sand–salt solution.
- • Depending on the ability and behaviour of the group, you will need to decide whether this increases the risk of the practical beyond a level you feel comfortable with. It is possible for some groups to start heating directly and others to use a water bath.
- • Students should take care when heating to dryness because it may cause spitting – eye protection should be worn.
- • Students should also be careful with hot objects. They should be reminded to allow equipment to cool before handling it or use heatproof gloves when moving the equipment.
Lesson 6Separating Techniques – Distillation→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 18–19
📚 Specification Points
- 1.10 describe these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures: • simple distillation • fractional distillation
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process of simple distillation
- describe the process of fractional distillation
- evaluate the use of simple and fractional distillation as separating techniques.
🔑 Key Words
- fractional distillation: a process to separate two liquids with different boiling points, for example ethanol and water or the components of crude oil
- fractionating column: a piece of equipment used for separating vapours in fractional distillation
- Liebig condenser: a piece of glassware which has cold water running through the outside sleeve, which causes the vapour within the condenser to turn back into a liquid
- simple distillation: a process used to separate two liquids of different boiling points, or to separate the solvent and solid solute from a solution
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Be mindful of the risk of scalding from hot steam. You may decide to use anti-bumping granules to help the liquid boil more smoothly and reduce the risk of boiling over. Remind students not to handle hot equipment – they should allow any apparatus that was used in heating to cool before putting it away.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Remind students not to handle hot equipment – they should allow any apparatus that was used in heating to cool before putting it away.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Hot water and glassware can cause burns.
- • Ethanol is flammable; make sure there are no naked flames in the laboratory.
Lesson 7Chromatography→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 19–21
Lab Book: Pages 5–7
📚 Specification Points
- 1.10 describe this experimental technique for the separation of mixtures: paper chromatography
- 1.11 understand how a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a mixture
- 1.12 understand how to use the calculation of Rf values to identify the components of a mixture
- 1.13 practical: investigate paper chromatography using inks/food colourings
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the technique of chromatography
- explain that a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a mixture
- calculateRfvalues
- useRfvalues to identify the components of a mixture.
🔑 Key Words
- chromatogram: the absorbent paper from paper chromatography showing the separation of different coloured substances
- paper chromatography: a process used to separate a mixture of coloured substances using absorbent paper
- retardation factor (Rf): (sometimes called the retention factor) calculated as the distance moved by a spot of dye (from the pencil line) divided by the distance moved by the solvent front (from the pencil line) on a chromatogram
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The solvent suggested for biro ink is flammable and harmful – ensure there are no naked flames in the lab.
- • There are no safety considerations for this practical.
Lesson 8Atomic Structure→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 24–26
📚 Specification Points
- 1.14 know what is meant by the terms: atom and molecule
- 1.15 know the structure of an atom in terms of the positions, relative masses, and relative charges of sub-atomic particles
- 1.16 know what is meant by the terms atomic number, mass number, and relative atomic mass (Ar)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the terms atom and molecule
- describe the structure of an atom
- know the relative mass and charge of each sub-atomic particle
- state what the terms atomic number and mass number mean
- use atomic number and mass number to calculate the number of each sub-atomic particle.
🔑 Key Words
- atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
- electron: a sub-atomic particle found in shells (energy levels) outside the nucleus of an atom; it has a relative mass of 1/1836 and a relative charge of –1; for a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons and therefore is the same as the atomic number
- mass number: the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
- molecule: two or more atoms covalently bonded together; molecules contain a certain fixed number of atoms
- neutron: a sub-atomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it has a relative mass of 1 and no charge; the number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between the mass number and the atomic number
- nucleon number: an alternative name for the mass number
- proton: a sub-atomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom; it has a relative mass of 1 and a relative charge of +1; the number of protons in an atom is the same as the atomic number
- proton number: an alternative name for the atomic number
- sub-atomic particles: particles that are smaller than an atom.
Lesson 9Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 26–27
📚 Specification Points
- 1.16 know what is meant by the terms atomic number, mass number, and relative atomic mass (Ar)
- 1.17 be able to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element (Ar) from isotopic abundances
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term isotope
- explain that the presence of isotopes leads to atoms of the same element having different mass numbers
- calculate the relative atomic mass for an element from isotopic abundances.
🔑 Key Words
- isotopes: different atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons; isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties
- relative atomic mass: the weighted average mass of the isotopes of an element, relative to the mass of 1 12 of a 12C atom
Lesson 10The Periodic Table→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 30–34
📚 Specification Points
- 1.18 understand how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table: • in order of atomic number • in groups and periods.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in order of atomic number
- describe how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in groups and periods
- deduce the electronic configuration of the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table.
🔑 Key Words
- electronic configuration: how electrons are arranged in the shells (energy levels) in an atom
- energy levels or shells: where electrons are found in an atom; each shell can only hold a certain number of electrons
- group: a vertical column in the Periodic Table; all elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons
- period: a horizontal row in the Periodic Table; all elements in the same period have the same number of occupied shells
- Periodic Table: a table in which elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number and in terms of chemical and physical properties
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection. Use no more than three small calcium granules.
Lesson 12Metals and Non-metals→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 35–36
📚 Specification Points
- 1.21 identify an element as a metal or a non-metal according to its position in the Periodic Table
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify an element as a metal or a non-metal depending on its position in the Periodic Table
- describe how to use electrical conductivity to classify an element as a metal or non-metal
- describe how to use the acid–base character of oxides to classify an element as a metal or a non-metal.
🔑 Key Words
- ductile: a property of metal that allows it to be drawn out into wires
- malleable: a property of metal that allows it to be hammered into different shapes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety considerations for this practical.
- • Wear eye protection: 0.2M nitric acid, 0.2M potassium hydroxide and 0.2M sodium hydroxide are irritants.
- • When stretching wires, wear eye protection.
- • When using the hammer to beat the lead rod, wear eye protection and use a safety screen.
- • Have some cushioning material positioned below the slotted masses and wire to avoid the masses landing on the floor or bouncing off the table.
Lesson 15Ions→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–78
📚 Specification Points
- 1.37 Understand how ions are formed by electron loss or gain.
- 1.38 Know the charges of these ions: Metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3 Non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7 Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term ion
- explain how positive ions (cations) are formed by the loss of electrons
- explain how negative ions (anions) are formed by the gain of electrons
- predict the charges of ions formed by metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3
- predict the charges of ions formed by non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7
- recall the charges and formulae of these ions: Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺
🔑 Key Words
- ion: an atom or group of atoms that has gained or lost electrons, giving it a positive or negative charge
- cation: a positively charged ion formed by the loss of electrons
- anion: a negatively charged ion formed by the gain of electrons
- electron loss: the process by which a metal atom becomes a positively charged ion
- electron gain: the process by which a non-metal atom becomes a negatively charged ion
Lesson 16Ionic Bonds→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–78
📚 Specification Points
- 1.39 Write formulae for compounds formed between the following ions: Metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3 Non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7 Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺ Hydrogen (H⁺), hydroxide (OH⁻), ammonium (NH₄⁺), carbonate (CO₃²⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), sulfate (SO₄²⁻)
- 1.41 Understand ionic bonding in terms of electrostatic attractions.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- In this lesson, students will learn to: write formulae for compounds made from:
- ions in Groups 1–3 and 5–7
- Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺
- H⁺, OH⁻, NH₄⁺, CO₃²⁻, NO₃⁻ and SO₄²⁻
- draw dot-and-cross diagrams for ionic compounds made from elements in Groups 1–3 and Groups 5–6
- describe an ionic bond as an electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
🔑 Key Words
- electrostatic force: the force of attraction between a positive charge and a negative charge
- ionic bond: strong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions, formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another
- isoelectronic: having the same number of electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Wear eye protection throughout the practical.
- Do not look directly at burning magnesium — the bright light can damage eyes. Wear eye protection.
Lesson 17Properties of Ionic Lattices→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 81–83
📚 Specification Points
- 1.42 understand why compounds with giant ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of a giant ionic lattice
- evaluate the use of models for ionic lattices
- explain why ionic lattices are brittle
- explain why ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points
- explain why ionic compounds can conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but not when solid.
🔑 Key Words
- giant: a structure in which there are no individual molecules or particles (ions/atoms) because the bonding extends in all directions with no limit to the number of particles present
- giant ionic lattice: the arrangement of ions in an ionic compound in its solid state
- lattice: a regular arrangement of particles
- molten: the liquid state formed when a solid has melted
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety considerations for this practical.
- • Group students into small groups and ask each group to follow the instructions on Worksheet 1: Practical method 1 and use the information about ionic bonds, ion size and electrostatic forces to make and evaluate a model of the ion structure in sodium chloride. When evaluating their models, students should note good and bad points.
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • There should be no naked flames in the laboratory as ethanol is highly flammable.
- • Ensure that the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Take particular care with any students who have asthma, as chlorine is produced from sodium chloride.
- • Eye protection should be worn.
- • Ensure that the laboratory is well ventilated.
- • Take particular care with any students who have asthma, as chlorine is produced from sodium chloride.
Lesson 18Reactions of Group 1 Metals→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 122–126
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 understand how the similarities in the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for their recognition as a family of elements
- 2.2 understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 1
🎯 Learning Objectives
- compare the appearance and density of Group 1 metals with common transition metals such as iron and copper
- describe the reactions of Group 1 metals with water
- write equations for the reactions of Group 1 metals with water
- explain how similarities in the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for their recognition as a family of elements
- explain how the differences between the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity of Group 1.
🔑 Key Words
- alkali metals: the elements of Group 1
- reactivity: how readily a substance reacts with other chemicals to form new compounds
- tarnish: to become dull and lose colour
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection and stand behind a safety screen during the demonstration. Ensure that students wear eye protection and remain at least 1 metre away from the screen.
- • Only use small amounts of alkali metals at a time (about half the size of a pea). You should practise using the alkali metals prior to the lesson. Do not be tempted by the exuberance of the students to use larger pieces.
- • All the demonstrations should be practised prior to being carried out in front of students. As students only need to see the results of the experiments and do not carry them out, video material is an acceptable alternative.
Lesson 19Reactivity Trend of the Group 1 Metals→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 122–129
📚 Specification Points
- 2.2 understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 1
- 2.3 use knowledge of trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity of Group 1 elements
- explain the trend in reactivity in Group 1 in terms of electronic configurations
- use knowledge of the trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals.
🔑 Key Words
- alkali metals: the elements of Group 1
- reactivity: how readily a substance reacts with other chemicals to form new compounds
Lesson 20Properties of the Halogens→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 130–131
📚 Specification Points
- 2.5 know the colours, physical states (at room temperature) and trends in physical properties of these elements
- 2.6 use knowledge of trends in Group 7 to predict the properties of other halogens
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the colours, physical states (at room temperature) and trends in physical properties of the Group 7 elements
- predict the properties of other halogens based on their knowledge of the trends in Group 7
- describe some uses for Group 7 elements.
🔑 Key Words
- covalent bond: a strong electrostatic force of attraction between the nuclei of the atoms making up the bond and the shared pair of electrons
- diatomic molecule: a molecule that contains two atoms
- halogen: a Group 7 element, including chlorine, fluorine, bromine and iodine
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection at all times.
- • Ensure that the lab is very well ventilated.
- • Chlorine must be stored in a fume cupboard.
- • Smell chlorine very carefully.
Lesson 22Covalent Bonding→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 85–91
📚 Specification Points
- 1.44 know that a covalent bond is formed between atoms by the sharing of a pair of electrons
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe what a covalent bond is in terms of the sharing of electrons
- understand covalent bonds in terms of electrostatic attraction
- understand how to use dot-and-cross diagrams to represent molecules.
🔑 Key Words
- covalent bonding: strong electrostatic force of attraction between the nuclei of the atoms making up the bond and the shared pair of electrons
- diatomic molecule: a molecule that contains two atoms
- double bond: atoms sharing two pairs of electrons in a covalent bond
- molecule: two or more atoms covalently bonded together; molecules contain a certain fixed number of atoms
- octet rule: the octet rule states that atoms generally lose, gain, or share electrons to have eight electrons in their outer shell
- triple bond: atoms sharing three pairs of electrons in a covalent bond
Lesson 23Simple Covalent Molecules→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 92–93
📚 Specification Points
- 1.47 explain why substances with a simple molecular structures are gases or liquids, or solids with low melting and boiling points the term intermolecular forces of attraction can be used to represent all forces between molecules
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why substances with a simple molecular structure have low melting and boiling points
- explain why the melting and boiling points of simple molecular structures increase, in general, with increasing relative molecular mass
- know that covalent compounds do not usually conduct electricity.
🔑 Key Words
- intermolecular forces: forces of attraction between covalent molecules, much weaker than the covalent bonds within the molecules
- simple molecular structure: the type of structure formed when molecules are joined together by intermolecular forces
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Eye protection must be worn.
- • Indirect heating of the alkanes makes it unlikely that they will ignite. However, some of the molten alkanes will be hot to the touch. Care should be taken.
- • Standard procedures should be adopted when using Bunsen burners.
- • Warn students about the hazard of heated water, and to take care that the water bath and tubes are stable during and after the experiment.
- • Care should be taken when placing tubes into the water bath, so that students are not working directly over a lit Bunsen burner.
Lesson 24Allotropes of Carbon→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 93–97
📚 Specification Points
- 1.49 explain why substances with giant covalent structures are solids with high melting and boiling points
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why substances with giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points
- explain how the structures of diamond, graphite and C60 fullerenes influence their physical properties
- know that covalent compounds do not usually conduct electricity.
🔑 Key Words
- allotropes: different forms of the same element (for example, diamond, graphite and C60 fullerene are three allotropes of carbon)
- delocalised electrons: electrons that are no longer attached to particular atoms or pairs of atoms but are free to move through the whole structure
- fullerenes: a family of molecules made of carbon atoms joined by single and double bonds that form closed or partially closed structures
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- There is no safety issue if the spaghetti is pre-cut.
Lesson 28Core Practical – Reactivity Series→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 145–146 and 150–156
Lab Book: Pages 18–19
📚 Specification Points
- 2.17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
- 2.15 understand how metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their reactions with: • water • dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the reactivity series of metals in terms of the reactivity of the metals with water and dilute acids
- describe the reactions of common metals with water and acids
- deduce the order of metals in the reactivity series from their reactions with water and acids.
🔑 Key Words
- reactivity series: a list of metals in order of decreasing reactivity
- salt: a compound formed when hydrogen is replaced by a metal or ammonium in an acid
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Ethanol/spirit is flammable. Keep away from naked flames and sources of ignition.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- with water and dilute acids
- Some metals, such as copper, silver and gold, do not react with dilute acids.
- Some metals, such as sodium and potassium, react violently with dilute acids.
Lesson 29Displacement Reactions Involving Metal Oxides→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 146–148
📚 Specification Points
- 2.17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the reactions of metals with metal oxides
- explain why displacement reactions are examples of redox reactions
- deduce the order of metals in the reactivity series from the reactions between metals and metal oxides
- explain the reactivity series in terms of the tendency of different metal atoms to form cations
- state the meaning of the terms: oxidation, reduction, redox, oxidising agent and reducing agent in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or gain of electrons.
🔑 Key Words
- oxidation: a reaction when a substance gains oxygen or loses electrons
- oxidising agent: a substance that oxidises another substance by giving oxygen to it or removing electrons from it
- redox reaction: a reaction when one substance is reduced (gains electrons) and another substance is oxidised (loses electrons) at the same time
- reducing agent: a substance that reduces another substance by removing oxygen from it or by giving electrons to it
- reduction: a reaction when a substance loses oxygen or gains electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear goggles ( not safety spectacles) or a face shield.
- • Students must wear eye protection and should stand at least 4 m away at the back of the laboratory.
- • This experiment must not be performed outdoors.
- • This experiment must not be performed in a fume cupboard.
- • The laboratory must be well ventilated.
- • Use safety screens and cover the bench top with heat-resistant mats.
- • Aluminium powder is highly flammable.
- • Do not use any other forms of ignition, such as potassium manganate(VII) and hot glycerol as the filter paper catches fire.
- • Do not use any copper oxide, chromium(VI) oxide, lead oxide or manganese(IV) oxide.
- • The procedure can be carried out safely, providing the control measures are rigorously adhered to.
- • No additional igniter is needed. Light a Bunsen burner, use it to ignite the sparkler, then move behind the safety screens. Once the reaction has stopped, remove the beaker. Retrieve the iron formed with a magnet. Wash the iron under running water.
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Take care with the hot apparatus.
- • Do not look directly at magnesium when it reacts.
- • Zinc and magnesium are highly flammable.
Lesson 30Displacement Reactions Involving Solutions of Salts→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 148–150
📚 Specification Points
- 2.17 know the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the reactions of metals with salt solutions
- explain why displacement reactions are redox reactions
- deduce the order of metals in the reactivity series from their reactions with salt solutions
- explain the reactivity series in terms of the tendency of different metal atoms to form cations.
🔑 Key Words
- displacement reaction: a reaction in which a more reactive metal takes the place of a less reactive metal in a compound
- reactivity series: a list of metals arranged in order of their reactivity
- aqueous solution: a solution in which water is the solvent
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Magnesium is highly flammable – make sure there are no naked flames in the laboratory.
Lesson 31Rusting→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 139 and 156–157
📚 Specification Points
- 2.18 know the conditions under which iron rusts
- 2.19 understand how the rusting of iron may be prevented by: • barrier methods • galvanising • sacrificial protection
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe corrosion of metals as the result of oxidation
- describe how rusting of iron occurs
- explain how rusting can be prevented by excluding oxygen and/or water
- explain how sacrificial protection works.
🔑 Key Words
- barrier protection: a method of rust prevention by coating with oil, paint, grease or plastic so that water and oxygen cannot reach the iron
- rusting: the corrosion of iron in the presence of oxygen and water
- sacrificial protection: a method of preventing rusting by attaching a block of a more reactive metal to the surface of the iron or steel
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
- • Care is needed with solutions of acid. Wash off splashes immediately.
- • Answers may include: keeping air/water away from iron; storing in an unreactive atmosphere of nitrogen or argon; using a desiccant powder to absorb water vapour; painting; oiling; greasing; coating with plastic. Some students may even say sacrificial protection or galvanising.
Lesson 34Tests for Gases→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 191–192
📚 Specification Points
- 2.44 describe tests for these gases: • hydrogen • oxygen • carbon dioxide • ammonia • chlorine.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the test for hydrogen and the positive result
- describe the test for oxygen and the positive result
- describe the test for carbon dioxide and the positive result
- describe the test for ammonia and the positive result
- describe the test for chlorine and the positive result.
🔑 Key Words
- bleach: to remove all colour from an object and turn it white
- clear: you can see through it
- colourless: has no colour
- litmus paper: paper that contains a dye that reacts with acids or alkalis to change colour
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Carry out this work in a fume cupboard or well-ventilated area.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 35Tests for Positive Ions→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 192–194
📚 Specification Points
- 2.45 describe how to carry out a flame test
- 2.46 know the colours formed in flame tests for these cations: • Li⁺ is red • Na⁺ is yellow • K⁺ is lilac • Ca²⁺ is orange-red • Cu²⁺ is blue-green
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why the test for a given ion must be unique to that ion
- recall some metal hydroxide precipitate colours
- describe how to identify metal ions using sodium hydroxide solution
- describe how to identify ammonium ions and ammonia. Slideshow: Learning objectives
🔑 Key Words
- nichrome: an unreactive metal alloy
- precipitate: a fine insoluble solid that is formed by a chemical reaction involving substances in solution Slideshow: Key definitions
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- hydrochloric acid and hold it in a Bunsen burner flame.
- the wire and the unknown salt in a roaring (blue) Bunsen burner flame.
Lesson 37Testing for Negative Ions and Water→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 192 and 194–196
📚 Specification Points
- 2.48 describe tests for these anions: • Cl⁻, Br⁻ and I⁻ using acidified silver nitrate solution • SO₄²⁻ using acidified barium chloride solution • CO₃²⁻ using hydrochloric acid and identifying the gas evolved.
- 2.49 describe a test for the presence of water using anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how to identify carbonate ions
- describe how to identify sulfate ions in solution
- describe how to identify halide ions in solution
- describe a test for the presence of water.
🔑 Key Words
- anhydrous: without water
- carbonate ions: ions formed by carbon and oxygen
- halide ions: ions formed by halogens
- sulfate ions: ions formed by sulfur and water
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn.
- Avoid skin contact with the substances used.
- Barium chloride solution is harmful.
- Dilute nitric acid is an irritant.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 38Rates of Reaction – Surface Area and Concentration→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 227–233
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature on the rate of a reaction
- 3.10 describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature on the rate of a reaction
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what has to happen for reactions to take place
- explain why changes in the frequency of collisions between particles affect the rate of reaction
- describe how to calculate rate of reaction from experimental data.
🔑 Key Words
- activation energy: the minimum amount of energy required for a collision to be successful, i.e., result in a reaction
- collision theory: states that for a reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide with each other, in the correct orientation and with sufficient energy
- concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a certain volume of solvent; in general, if you increase the concentration of reactants in a reaction, the rate of reaction increases
- rate: the speed at which the amount of reactant decreases or the amount of product increases; it is measured as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time
- surface area: the area on the surface of a solid that is exposed
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection. Handle acids and alkalis with care; wash any splashes off skin immediately.
- Ethanol/spirit is flammable. Keep away from naked flames and sources of ignition.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 231–233
Lab Book: Pages 37–41
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature, on the rate of a reaction
- 3.10 describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, pressure of a gas, temperature and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
- 3.15 practical: investigate the effect of changing the surface area of marble chips and of changing the concentration of hydrochloric acid on the rate of reaction between marble chips and dilute hydrochloric acid.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid or concentration of a solution on the rate of a reaction
- describe the effects of changes in surface area of a solid or concentration of a solution on the rate of a reaction
- explain the effects of changes in surface area of a solid or concentration of a solution on the rate of a reaction
- explain why a graph of concentration against time is a curve.
🔑 Key Words
- concentration: the amount of solute dissolved in a certain volume of solvent; in general, if you increase the concentration of reactants in a reaction, the rate of reaction increases
- rate: the speed at which the amount of reactant decreases or the amount of product increases; it is measured as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time
- surface area: the area on the surface of a solid that is exposed
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Care is needed with acid solutions. Wash off splashes immediately. Hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 1.0 mol/dm³ is a low hazard but may still cause harm in eyes and in cuts.
- • Calcium carbonate is a low hazard.
- • Eye protection must be worn by teacher and students.
- • The best alcohol to use is propan-2-ol. Propan-1-ol, ethanol or methanol [not above room temperatures greater that 22 °C] could be used – do not use any other flammable liquids.
- • Do not add oxygen to the bottle.
- • Only use polycarbonate bottles, identified by PC mark on base. Do not use glass bottles or damaged polycarbonate bottles.
Lesson 40Energy and Rates of Reaction→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 234–238
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in temperature, and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
- 3.10 describe the effects of changes in pressure of a gas, temperature, and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
- 3.12 know that a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe an experiment to investigate the effect of changing temperature on the rate of a reaction
- describe and explain the effect of changing temperature on the rate of a reaction
- explain that a catalyst lowers activation energy by providing an alternative reaction pathway, and is chemically unchanged at the end of a reaction
- draw and explain reaction profile diagrams showing ΔH and activation energy
- describe how to investigate the effect of different catalysts on the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution.
🔑 Key Words
- rate of reaction: the speed at which reactants are converted into products
- activation energy: the minimum amount of energy that colliding particles must have in order to react
- catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up
- collision theory: the idea that particles must collide with sufficient energy for a reaction to occur
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection at all times.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
Lesson 41Writing Equations and Relative Formula Mass→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 38–44
📚 Specification Points
- 1.25 write word equations and balanced chemical equations (including state symbols): • for reactions studied in this specification • for unfamiliar reactions where suitable information is provided
- 1.26 calculate relative formula masses (including relative molecular masses) (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- write word equations from chemical reactions
- write balanced chemical symbol equations
- calculate the relative formula mass of a substance from relative atomic masses.
🔑 Key Words
- balancing equations: a process of putting coefficients in front of formulae so that the same number of atoms of each type is on both sides of an equation
- coefficient: a number written in front of formulae in a balanced chemical equation
- formula: a representation of a chemical showing the elements present and how many atoms are bonded together in each molecule
- relative atomic mass: the weighted average mass of the isotopes of an element, relative to the mass of one-twelfth of a 12C atom
- relative formula mass: the weighted average mass of a formula unit of a compound, relative to the mass of one-twelfth of a 12C atom; it is sometimes called the relative molecular mass, when it refers to covalent molecules
- state symbol: a symbol after each species of an equation that indicates whether it is a solid (s), liquid (l), solution (aq) or gas (g)
- symbol equation: a representation of a chemical reaction using chemical formulae
Lesson 49Acids, Alkalis, and Indicators→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 167–170
📚 Specification Points
- 2.28 describe the use of litmus, phenolphthalein, and methyl orange to distinguish between acidic and alkaline solutions
- 2.31 know that acids in aqueous solution are a source of hydrogen ions and alkalis in a aqueous solution are a source of hydroxide ions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how an indicator can be used to identify whether a solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral
- state the acidic, neutral, and alkaline colours for litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange
- state that acidic substances release hydrogen ions when in solution
- state that alkaline substances release hydroxide ions when in solution.
🔑 Key Words
- acid: a substance that acts as a source of hydrogen ions in solution or as a proton donor
- alkali: a soluble base that acts as a source of hydroxide ions in solution or as a proton acceptor
- base: a substance that neutralises acids by combining with the hydrogen ions in them
- indicator: a substance that has different colours depending on the pH
- neutral: a substance with a pH value of 7
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection at all times (sodium hydroxide is corrosive).
- Wipe up spills as soon as possible. Care is required with some indicators, which are highly flammable.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- flammable; keep away from flames (and sources
- corrosive; wear gloves and safety glasses (wash
Lesson 51Neutralisation→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 170–172
📚 Specification Points
- 2.32 know that alkalis can neutralise acids
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that alkalis can neutralise acids
- explain why the solution of a salt and water is neutral
- state that the reaction between alkalis and acids is called neutralisation
- write ionic equations for neutralisation.
🔑 Key Words
- ionic equation: shows only the ions taking part in a reaction
- neutralisation: a chemical reaction in which acids react with bases or alkalis to produce salts
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn.
- Calcium hydroxide is an irritant, with a risk of serious damage to eyes.
- Dilute hydrochloric acid is an irritant.
Lesson 61Core Practical – The Atmosphere→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 137–141
Lab Book: Pages 16–17
📚 Specification Points
- 2.9 know the approximate percentages by volume of the four most abundant gases in dry air
- 2.10 understand how to determine the percentage by volume of oxygen in air using experiments involving the reactions of metals (e.g., iron) and non-metals (e.g., phosphorus) with air
- 2.14 practical: determine the approximate percentage by volume of oxygen in air using a metal or a non-metal
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the percentage composition of dry air
- state that when some elements oxidise in air, only oxygen is removed from the air, leaving a smaller volume of gas
- describe a method of finding the percentage of oxygen in the air
- calculate the percentage of oxygen in the air
- explain the limitations of these methods.
🔑 Key Words
- atmosphere: layer of gases which surround a planet and are held in place by gravity
- combustion: a chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen (burns) to form products and heat
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection should be worn throughout to prevent any tiny pieces from the iron wool getting into eyes.
- Small pieces of iron can be an irritant on the skin, wash off any as soon as possible.
- Handle glassware carefully. Report any breakages to the teacher immediately.
- Eye protection should be worn throughout.
- Eye protection or a face shield should be worn throughout.
- The practical should ideally be carried out in a fume cupboard.
- This is a dangerous experiment and so is a teacher-led demonstration.
Lesson 62The Greenhouse Effect→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 142–143
📚 Specification Points
- 2.13 know that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that increasing amounts in the atmosphere may contribute to climate change
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the meaning of 'greenhouse gas' and ‘greenhouse effect’
- state the common greenhouse gases
- describe the basic processes that add or remove carbon dioxide to/from the atmosphere
- evaluate the evidence that humans are adding carbon dioxide to the air.
🔑 Key Words
- causal link: when one thing can be shown to be causing another thing
- climate change: changes that happen to the global weather patterns as a result of global warming
- correlation: a relationship between two variables, such that if one variable changes so does the other; this can be positive or negative
- emit: give out
- global warming: greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, trap the heat radiated from the Earth’s surface (originally from the Sun) and lead to an increase in the temperature of the Earth and its atmosphere
- greenhouse gas: gases, such as carbon dioxide, which can trap heat radiated from the Earth’s surface (originally from the Sun)
Lesson 64Oxidation Reactions→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 104 and 147
📚 Specification Points
- 2.11 describe the combustion of elements in oxygen, including magnesium, hydrogen and sulfur
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define the term ‘combustion’
- describe that combustion is an oxidation reaction
- describe the reactions of metals and non-metals with oxygen, including writing equations.
🔑 Key Words
- combustion: a chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen (burns) to form products and heat
- oxidation: gain of oxygen or loss of electrons
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Eye protection must be worn.
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Carry out this work in a fume cupboard or well-ventilated area.
Lesson 67Introduction to Organic Chemistry→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 255–258
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 know that a hydrocarbon is a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
- 4.2 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define a hydrocarbon as a compound of hydrogen and carbon only
- represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae.
🔑 Key Words
- displayed formula: a formula that shows all the bonds in a molecule as individual lines, each line representing a pair of shared electrons in a covalent bond
- hydrocarbon: a compound consisting of hydrogen and carbon atoms only
- organic compound: a compound that contains carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms
- structural formula: a formula that shows how the atoms are joined together in a molecule, which is often written in a condensed form by omitting all of the carbon–carbon and carbon–hydrogen single bonds
Lesson 70Isomers→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 261–264
📚 Specification Points
- 4.2 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
🎯 Learning Objectives
- that carbon always forms four covalent bonds
- the meaning of the term 'isomer'
- to draw and name all isomers of a molecule.
🔑 Key Words
- structural isomerism: the existence of two or more different structures with the same molecular formula
- structural isomers: molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae
Lesson 71Empirical Formulae→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 46–47, 256–258
📚 Specification Points
- 4.2 understand how to represent organic molecules using empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, structural formulae and displayed formulae
🎯 Learning Objectives
- deduce the molecular formula from a displayed or structural formula
- deduce the empirical formula given the molecular formula
- write possible molecular formulae and also structural formulae given the empirical formula
- calculate the empirical and molecular formula of an organic molecule from data.
🔑 Key Words
- empirical formula: gives the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms of each element present in a compound. It can be worked out from experimental data
- molecular formula: shows the actual number of each type of atom present in a molecule (covalent compound) or formula unit (ionic compound)
Lesson 73Crude Oil→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 268–270
📚 Specification Points
- 4.7 know that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that crude oil is a raw material in limited supply
- state that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules
- describe how fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into fractions
- explain that fractions are still mixtures.
🔑 Key Words
- crude oil: formed from the remains of living organisms when their soft tissue was gradually changed by high temperatures and pressures into a thick, black oil; it is a mixture of hydrocarbons
- fractions: groups of compounds collected when a mixture is separated by fractional distillation
- viscous: a liquid that is resistant to flow
- volatile: a substance that evaporates easily
Lesson 75Hydrocarbons as Fuels→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 270–271, 279
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11 know that a fuel is a substance that, when burned, releases heat energy
- 4.12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
- 4.13 understand why carbon monoxide is poisonous, in terms of its effect on the capacity of blood to transport oxygen (references to haemoglobin are not required)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the meaning of the term ‘fuel’
- state that full (complete) combustion of hydrocarbons releases carbon dioxide and water
- state the conditions leading to incomplete combustion
- explain why carbon monoxide forms in incomplete combustion
- explain why carbon monoxide is toxic.
🔑 Key Words
- complete combustion: occurs when a hydrocarbon burns in sufficient oxygen; carbon dioxide and water are formed as products
- incomplete combustion: occurs when a hydrocarbon burns in insufficient oxygen; water is still formed as a product, but carbon monoxide and carbon are formed instead of carbon dioxide
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection. Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is harmful and irritating to the eyes and skin.
- • Cobalt chloride is toxic: use forceps to handle the dry cobalt chloride paper, if this is used.
- • Ask students questions about each of the parts of the apparatus: Why is a glass funnel used? (Answer: Plastic would melt; traps any soot produced.) What is being tested for in the U-shaped tube? (Answer: Water vapour) Why is iced water needed around the U-shaped tube? (Answer: To cool the water vapour so it becomes water; it makes it easier for the anhydrous copper sulfate to become hydrated copper sulfate as the vapour might pass through too quickly to cause any change in the anhydrous copper sulfate.) What is the expected colour change of anhydrous copper sulfate? (Answer: It is white when copper sulfate is in the anhydrous form and becomes hydrated blue copper sulfate if there is any water present.) What is being tested for with the limewater? (Answer: Carbon dioxide) What is the positive result for carbon dioxide with the limewater? (Answer: The limewater turns milky white/cloudy.) Discuss the hazard of carbon monoxide and the problems of gas and soot from appliances. (Answer: If insufficient oxygen is present, then soot will form on objects. Soot can block pipes carrying waste gases from an appliance, blacken buildings and cause breathing problems; carbon monoxide, which is toxic, can be produced; it combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells preventing oxygen from combining with the haemoglobin; so reduces amount of oxygen carried in the bloodstream; causing affected people to feel sleepy or drowsy; this can lead to unconsciousness and even death.)
Lesson 76Acid Rain→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Page 273
📚 Specification Points
- 4.14 know that, in car engines, the temperature reached is high enough to allow nitrogen and oxygen from air to react, forming oxides of nitrogen
- 4.15 explain how the combustion of some impurities in hydrocarbon fuels results in the formation of sulfur dioxide
- 4.16 understand how sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen contribute to acid rain
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why nitrogen is inert, but that it will react in an engine
- explain how sulfur dioxide can be formed during combustion
- state how sulfur and nitrogen oxides form acid rain
- describe some of the consequences of acid rain.
🔑 Key Words
- acid rain: rain which has a pH of less than about 5.6; it is caused when water and oxygen in the atmosphere react with sulfur dioxide to produce sulfuric acid or with various oxides of nitrogen, NOx, to give nitric acid
- impurities: unwanted substances found mixed into a useful substance
- pollutant: a substance that harms living organisms when released into the environment
- scrubbing: removing pollutant gases from the gases produced in a combustion reaction
- weathering: when rocks are broken up by physical, chemical or biological processes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Carry out the demonstration in a fume cupboard or ensure adequate ventilation in the laboratory.
- • Sulfur dioxide gas is toxic and has a choking smell. It can also trigger asthma attacks – avoid excessive escape from the gas jar.
- • OPTIONAL: If the demonstration cannot be carried out, display the Image: Burning sulfur .
- • Wear eye protection as 0.5 mol/dm³ sulfuric acid and 0.4 mol/dm³ nitric acid are irritants.
- • Take care not to jam the samples in the test tube.
- • To avoid blocking the sinks, pour the used contents of the test tubes into a sieve and bowl.
Lesson 77Alkanes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 277–279
📚 Specification Points
- 4.19 know the general formula for alkanes
- 4.20 explain why alkanes are classified as saturated hydrocarbons
- 4.21 understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkanes with up to five carbon atoms in the molecule, and to name the unbranched-chain isomers
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the general formula of the alkane homologous series
- deduce the molecular formula of an alkane using the general formula
- draw all isomers of alkanes up to five carbon atoms
- recognise unbranched alkanes from the molecular, structural or displayed formulae.
🔑 Key Words
- functional group: an atom or a group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a compound
- homologous series: a series of compounds with similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group; each member differs from the next by –CH2– and members show a gradual change in properties
Lesson 78Reactions of Alkanes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 279–280
📚 Specification Points
- 4.12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand that alkanes can fully combust in air
- describe when incomplete combustion occurs
- understand the conditions for the reaction of alkanes with halogens
- write equations for the substitution reactions of alkanes.
🔑 Key Words
- complete combustion: the process of a hydrocarbon burning in sufficient oxygen, to produce only carbon dioxide and water as products
- incomplete combustion: the process of a hydrocarbon burning in insufficient oxygen, to produce carbon monoxide or carbon instead of carbon dioxide, as well as water
- mono-substitution: a substitution reaction in which only one hydrogen atom in an alkane is replaced by a halogen atom
- soot: black powder consisting largely of carbon
- ultraviolet radiation: the part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum that has wavelengths between those of visible light and X-rays, which is invisible to the human eye
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas that prevents the transport of oxygen around the
- Carbon monoxide is toxic, meaning it can kill people.
- Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas produced during
Lesson 81Core Practical – Heat Changes In Reactions→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 207, 209 and 216–217
Lab Book: Pages 24, 29–30
📚 Specification Points
- 3.1 know that chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out are described as exothermic, and those in which heat energy is taken in are described as endothermic
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as dissolving
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • salts dissolving in water
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that most reactions release heat energy, and these are called exothermic reactions
- state that some reactions absorb heat energy, and these are called endothermic reactions
- state that temperature change is used to identify these reaction types
- describe how heat changes in solution may be determined experimentally.
🔑 Key Words
- calorimetry: measuring the heat given out or taken in by a chemical reaction
- endothermic: reactions in which heat energy is taken in from the surroundings
- enthalpy change: the amount of energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction; it has the symbol ∆H
- exothermic: reactions in which heat energy is given out to the surroundings
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Ammonium chloride is harmful. Avoid contact with your skin.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 209–211 and 217–219
Lab Book: Pages 24–28
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as neutralisation
- 3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • neutralisation reactions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate a heat change from temperature change data
- calculate the molar enthalpy change from the heat change
- describe the practical technique used to measure temperature change for neutralisation reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- enthalpy change: the amount of heat energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction; it is the difference between the energy of products and the energy of the reactants
- specific heat capacity: the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 °C
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • 1.0 mol/dm³ sodium hydroxide is corrosive and very damaging to eyes.
- • Care is needed with solutions of acid. Wash off splashes immediately.
- • Wear eye protection and disposable gloves.
- • Take care with the hot, and cold, solutions.
- • Both reactions produce hydrochloric acid, which is corrosive.
- • It may help if students are told that the water, thermometer and boiling tube are part of the surroundings and that energy is transferred from or to the dissolving substance by heating.
Lesson 83Core Practical – Energy Level Diagrams→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 209–210 and 215–216
Lab Book: Pages 24, 31–33
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as displacement
- 3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • displacement reactions
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the practical technique to measure temperature change for displacement reactions
- state that in exothermic reactions the products contain less energy than the reactants
- state that in endothermic reactions the products contain more energy than the reactants
- draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions.
🔑 Key Words
- exothermic reaction: a reaction that transfers energy to the surroundings, causing a temperature increase
- endothermic reaction: a reaction that takes in energy from the surroundings, causing a temperature decrease
- energy level diagram: a diagram showing the relative energy levels of reactants and products
- calorimetry: measuring the heat energy change during a chemical reaction
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Copper(II) sulfate is harmful and an irritant.
- • Zinc powder is flammable and hazardous to the environment.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 211–214
Lab Book: Pages 24, 34–36
📚 Specification Points
- 3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as combustion
- 3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
- 3.8 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: • combustion reactions.
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe a practical technique to measure temperature change for combustion reactions
- explain why a different technique is needed to measure the heat change in a combustion reaction
- explain why the heat change measured is inaccurate.
🔑 Key Words
- enthalpy change: the amount of energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction; it has the symbol ∆H
- exothermic: reactions in which heat energy is given out to the surroundings
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • All alcohols are flammable: handle with care and keep the tops on burners when not in use.
Lesson 92Alkenes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 282–283
📚 Specification Points
- 4.23 know that alkenes contain the functional group >C=C<
- 4.24 know the general formula for alkenes
- 4.25 explain why alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons
- 4.26 understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkenes with up to four carbon atoms in the molecule, and name the unbranched-chain isomers (knowledge of cis/trans or E/Z notation is not required)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons
- identify an alkene from the molecular formula
- draw the structural and displayed formulae of unbranched alkenes.
🔑 Key Words
- alkene: an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C)
- unsaturated: a molecule that contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond
- general formula: a formula that represents any member of a homologous series; for alkenes it is CₙH₂ₙ
- functional group: the reactive part of a molecule; in alkenes this is the C=C double bond
Lesson 93Reactions of Alkenes→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 283–284
📚 Specification Points
- 4.12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
- 4.28 describe how bromine water can be used to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that alkenes can combust in air
- state that alkanes cannot undergo addition reactions, but alkenes can
- write equations, including using structural formulae, for addition reactions
- describe how to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene.
🔑 Key Words
- addition reaction: a reaction in which atoms are added across a double bond in an unsaturated molecule
- dibromoalkane: the product formed when bromine reacts with an alkene
- bromine water test: a test to distinguish between alkanes and alkenes; alkenes decolourise bromine water
- combustion: a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing heat and light
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection.
- • Cyclohexane and cyclohexene are highly flammable; there must not be any naked flames in the laboratory.
- • These chemicals are also harmful. Bromine water is harmful at this concentration (0.02 mol/dm³ ).
Lesson 105Addition Polymers→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 302–307
📚 Specification Points
- 4.44 know that an addition polymer is formed by joining up many small molecules called monomers
- 4.45 understand how to draw the repeat unit of an addition polymer, including poly(ethene), poly(propene), poly(chloroethene) and poly(tetrafluoroethene)
- 4.46 understand how to deduce the structure of a monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer and vice versa
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that a polymer is a long-chain molecule consisting of repeating units, called monomers
- explain how a polymer can be formed from many alkene monomers
- state that alkenes form polymers by addition polymerisation
- identify the monomer of a polymer and vice-versa.
🔑 Key Words
- addition polymerisation: a type of polymerisation in which the monomers add on to each other and no small molecules are eliminated
- monomers: molecules that can join to form a polymer
- polymer: a large molecule made when many small molecules (monomers) join together
- polymerisation: the joining of lots of small molecules (monomers) to make one big molecule (polymer)
Lesson 106Polymer Disposal→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 307–308
📚 Specification Points
- 4.47 explain problems in the disposal of addition polymers, including: • their inertness and inability to biodegrade • the production of toxic gases when they are burned
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the problems of addition polymer disposal that are caused by their inertness and inability to biodegrade
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of recycling addition polymers
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of disposing of addition polymers in landfill
- describe the advantages and disadvantages of the incineration of addition polymers.
🔑 Key Words
- biodegradable: able to be broken down by bacteria or fungi in the environment
- incinerate: the burning of waste in a furnace; incinerators can capture waste gases or use the heat produced to generate electricity
- inert: unreactive
- landfill: an area of land used as a location to dispose of waste materials
- non-biodegradable: unable to be broken down by bacteria or fungi in the environment
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- an area of land used as a location to dispose of
- The ash produced can be toxic so still needs to be disposed of in landfill sites
- Releases harmful and toxic gases.
- an area of land used as a location to dispose of waste materials
- Plastics are non-biodegradable, so they do not rot and are difficult to dispose of.
Lesson 108Condensation Polymer Disposal→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 307–310
📚 Specification Points
- 4.47 explain problems in the disposal of addition polymers, including: • their inertness and inability to biodegrade • the production of toxic gases when they are burned
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why some polymers are biodegradable
- state the uses that can be made of biodegradable polymers and their limitations
- state the advantages of a biodegradable polymer
- evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of recycling polymers.
🔑 Key Words
- biodegradable: able to be broken down by living organisms such as bacteria
- biopolyester: a polyester that is biodegradable
- addition polymer: a polymer formed from unsaturated monomers without the loss of any atoms
- inert: chemically unreactive; difficult to break down
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- too dangerous to incinerate.
- These will need to be disposed of at landfill sites.
🔮 Physics
Lesson 1Distance–Time Graphs→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 4–6 and 15–16
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/(second)2 (m/s2), newton (N), second (s) and newton/kilogram (N/kg)
- 1.3 plot and explain distance–time graphs
- 1.4 know and use the relationship between average speed, distance moved and time taken: average speed = (distance moved)/(time taken)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use distance–time graphs to analyse the motion of an object
- sketch distance–time graphs for the motion of an object
- use the average speed equation to calculate speed, distance or time taken.
🔑 Key Words
- accelerating: getting faster
- acceleration: the rate of change of increasing velocity
- average speed = \(\frac{\mathrm{distance}\;\mathrm{moved}}{\mathrm{time}\;\mathrm{taken}}\)
- decelerating: getting slower
- deceleration: the rate of change of decreasing velocity
- distance–time graph: a graph showing distance travelled at certain intervals of time
- gradient: the slope of a line or surface
Lesson 2Investigating Motion→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 2–8
Lab Book: Pages 2–5
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the motion of a toy car
- analyse data and describe motion.
🔑 Key Words
- anomalous result: a result that does not fit the pattern, also called an anomaly
- hypothesis: this is an idea about how something works that can be tested with experiments
- mean: the average value calculated when all the numbers are added together and divided by the number of readings
- parallax error: type of error that occurs when your eye is not directly in front of or above the measuring instrument, but at an angle
- perpendicular: at right angles/at 90°
- prediction: this describes what will happen in the experiment if the hypothesis is correct
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students need to take a large number of measurements to complete this practical. There are two ways to do this. You need to select the option based on class size and time available: Option 1: Assign specific measurements to groups of students, as explained below, and then pool the results to make a whole-class results table. If you choose this option, you’ll have to specify the starting height and all the subsequent values for the height (found before the lesson starts). The maximum height should not exceed 30 cm. Option 2: Alternatively, let each group take all the measurements. This option is likely to take up the remainder of the lesson, meaning that the analysis and evaluation work in Task 2 and the End-of-lesson activity may need to take place in a second session. If you choose this option, you will have to specify the starting height for students, which you would have to find before the start of the lesson according to the instructions in the practical’s method. You can then either choose to specify all subsequent values as well, or let students choose their own values. If that’s the case, tell students: You’ll be choosing your own values for the height increase, but the maximum height should not exceed 30 cm since this can cause the car to reach relatively high speeds and cause damage .
Lesson 3Identifying Forces→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 18–20, 26 and 34
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N), second (s) and newton/kilogram (N/kg)
- 1.12 identify different types of force such as gravitational or electrostatic
- 1.16 know that friction is a force that opposes motion
- 1.18 know and use the relationship between weight, mass and gravitational field strength: weight = mass × gravitational field strength W = m × g
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the features of vectors and scalars
- give examples of vector and scalar quantities
- identify different types of force
- define and calculate weight.
🔑 Key Words
- drag or air resistance: a force between a moving object and the fluid (liquid or gas) in which it is moving
- friction: a force between two solid surfaces trying to move across each other that tries to stop movement happening
- gravitational field strength (g): the size of the effect of gravity acting on an object (measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg))
- mass: the amount of matter in a body (measured in kilograms (kg))
- newton (N): the unit of measurement for force
- normal reaction force: a force that acts when two objects are in contact with one another to prevent one object passing through the other
- scalar: a quantity with size only
- upthrust: the upwards force on a body when it displaces fluid
- vector: a quantity with size and direction
- weight: the force of gravity acting on a body (measured in newtons (N))
- weight = mass × gravitational field strength or W = mg
Lesson 4Resultant Forces→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 20–22
📚 Specification Points
- 1.11 describe the effects of forces between bodies such as changes in speed, shape and direction
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define and calculate resultant forces
- describe the effects of forces on objects.
🔑 Key Words
- resultant force: the single force that has the same effect as the combination of all the forces acting on an object
Lesson 67Resultant Forces and Acceleration→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 28–31 and 35–37
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and second (s)
- 1.17 know and use the relationship between unbalanced force, mass and acceleration: force = mass x acceleration; F=m×a
🎯 Learning Objectives
- recall and use the relationship: resultant force = mass × acceleration
- explain why falling objects reach terminal velocity.
🔑 Key Words
- resultant force: the single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting on an object combined
- acceleration: the rate of change of velocity
- Newton's second law: force = mass × acceleration (F = ma)
- terminal velocity: the constant speed reached when the driving force equals the resistive forces
Lesson 64Velocity–Time Graphs→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 9–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2) and second (s)
- 1.6 know and use the relationship between acceleration, change in velocity and time taken: acceleration=(change in velocity)/(time taken) a=((v-u))/t
- 1.7 plot and explain velocity–time graphs
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use velocity–time graphs to analyse the motion of an object
- use the relationship: acceleration = change in velocity time taken .
🔑 Key Words
- velocity: the speed of an object in a particular direction, measured in m/s
- acceleration: the rate of change of velocity, a = v − u t
- velocity–time graph: a graph used to show the change in velocity of an object over a period of time
Lesson 65Calculations Using Velocity–Time Graphs→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 9–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2) and second (s)
- 1.8 determine acceleration from the gradient of a velocity–time graph
- 1.9 determine the distance travelled from the area between a velocity–time graph and the time axis
🎯 Learning Objectives
- determine acceleration from the gradient of a velocity–time graph
- calculate distance travelled from the area under a velocity–time graph
- interpret velocity–time graphs for objects with changing velocity
🔑 Key Words
- velocity–time graph: a graph used to show the change in velocity of an object over a period of time
- acceleration: the rate of change of velocity, a = v − u t
Lesson 69The Suvat Equations→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 14–15
📚 Specification Points
- 1.6 know and use the relationship between acceleration, change in velocity and time taken: acceleration=(change in velocity)/(time taken) a=((v-u))/t
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the relationship \({(\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2={(\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2+(2\times\mathrm{acceleration}\times\mathrm{distance}\;\mathrm{moved})\) 2 \(=\) (initial speed)2 \(+\) (2 \(\times\) acceleration \(\times\) distance moved) -->
- use the relationship \(\mathrm {acceleration}=\frac{\mathrm{change}\;\mathrm{in}\;\mathrm{velocity}}{\text{time taken}}\) or \(\mathrm{acceleration}=\frac{\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm{velocity}-\;\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm{velocity}}{\text{time taken}}\)
🔑 Key Words
- acceleration = change   in   velocity time   taken
- acceleration  = final   velocity - initial   velocity time   taken \(a=\frac{v-u}t\)
- \({(\mathrm{final}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2={(\mathrm{initial}\;\mathrm{speed})}^2+(2\times\mathrm{acceleration}\times\mathrm{distance}\;\mathrm{moved})\) 2 \(=\) (initial speed)2 \(+\) (2 \(\times\) acceleration \(\times\) distance moved) --> \(v^2=u^2+\left(2\times a\times s\right)\)
Lesson 70On the Road→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 32–33
📚 Specification Points
- 1.19 know that the stopping distance of a vehicle is made up of the sum of the thinking distance and the braking distance
- 1.20 describe the factors affecting vehicle stopping distance, including speed, mass, road condition and reaction time
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know that the stopping distance of a vehicle is made up of the sum of the thinking distance and the braking distance
- describe the factors affecting vehicle stopping distance, including speed, mass, road condition and reaction time.
🔑 Key Words
- braking distance: the distance travelled by the car while the brakes are applied
- reaction time: the time taken for a driver to react to a hazard
- thinking distance: the distance travelled by the car while the driver reacts to a hazard
- stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for the practical.
Lesson 10Energy Stores and Pathways→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 132–135 and 137
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following unit: joule (J)
- 4.2 describe energy transfers involving energy stores: • Energy stores: chemical, kinetic, gravitational, elastic, thermal, magnetic, electrostatic, nuclear • Energy transfers: mechanically, electrically, by heating, by radiation (light and sound)
- 4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and give examples of the eight energy stores
- know and give examples of the four energy pathways
- describe energy transfers in everyday situations in terms of stores and pathways.
🔑 Key Words
- energy: a property of a system used to describe and calculate changes – measured in joules, J
- energy pathway: a process, such as a force moving an object, which transfers energy between different stores
- energy store: an object, or system of objects, in which energy is stored – there are eight different ways in which energy is stored
- energy transfer: a description of the changes in energy stores and the pathways that cause those changes
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with hot apparatus. Do not touch hot equipment directly. Use tongs or heat-proof mats.
- Stand clear of swinging objects. Ensure masses are securely attached.
Lesson 90Kinetic Energy→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 153–155
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), joule (J), metre (m), metre/second (m/s) metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N), second (s) and watt (W)
- 4.14 know and use the relationship: KE = ½ × m × v2
- 4.15 understand how conservation of energy produces a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy and work
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship: kinetic energy = 1 2 × mass × speed2
- understand how conservation of energy produces a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy and work.
🔑 Key Words
- kinetic energy: the energy an object has due to its motion
- gravitational potential energy: the energy an object has due to its height above the ground
- conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred between stores
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Stand clear of swinging objects. Ensure masses are securely attached.
Lesson 89Work and Energy Transfer→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 150–153
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11 know and use the relationship between work done, force and distance moved in the direction of the force: work done = force × distance moved, W=F×d
- 4.12 know that work done is equal to energy transferred
- 4.13 know and use the relationship between gravitational potential energy, mass, gravitational field strength, and height: gravitational potential energy = mass x gravitational field strength x height, GPE=m×g×h
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship: work done = force × distance moved
- know that work done is equal to energy transferred
- know and use the relationship:gravitational potential energy (GPE) = mass × gravitational field strength × height.
🔑 Key Words
- gravitational potential energy = mass × gravitational field strength × height (\(GPE = m\;×\;g\;×\;h\))
- weight = mass × gravitational field strength (\(W = m\;×\;g\))
- work done: the work done by a force is the energy transferred by that force
- work done = force × distance moved (\(W = F\;×\;d\))
Lesson 91Power→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 155–156 and 63–65
📚 Specification Points
- 4.11 know and use the relationship between work done, force and distance moved in the direction of the force: work done = force × distance moved, W=F×d
- 4.14 know and use the relationship: KE = ½ × m × v2
- 4.16 describe power as the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of doing work
- 4.17 use the relationship between power, work done (energy transferred) and time taken: power = work done/time taken
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe power as the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of doing work and use the relationship: \(\text{power = }\frac{\text{work done}}{\text{time taken}}\)
- combine a range of equations involving power and work done to answer questions.
🔑 Key Words
- power: the rate of doing work or transferring energy
- power \({ = }\frac{\text{work done}}{\text{time taken}}\) \({(P = }\frac{{W}}{{t}})\)
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- hazard and pushes the brakes, which produce a frictional
Lesson 11Conservation of Energy and Efficiency→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 135–137
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following unit: joule (J)
- 4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy
- 4.4 know and use the relationship between efficiency, useful energy output and total energy input: efficiency=(useful energy output)/(total energy input)×100%
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and apply the principle of conservation of energy
- explain and calculate efficiency in energy transfers.
🔑 Key Words
- closed system: where there are no outside influences, no external forces or external heating effects
- efficiency equation:
- principle of conservation of energy: the principle of conservation of energy states that energy is not created or destroyed in any process
- useful energy: the energy which is transferred to stores we want
- wasted energy: the energy which is transferred to stores we do not want
Lesson 12Sankey Diagrams and Energy Transfers→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 136–138
📚 Specification Points
- 4.1 use the following unit: joule (J)
- 4.3 use the principle of conservation of energy
- 4.4 know and use the relationship between efficiency, useful energy output and total energy input: efficiency=(useful energy output)/(total energy input)×100%
- 4.5 describe a variety of everyday and scientific devices and situations, explaining transfer the input energy in terms of the above relationship, including their representation by Sankey diagrams
🎯 Learning Objectives
- identify the useful energy output and wasted energy in everyday situations
- use Sankey diagrams
- draw Sankey diagrams.
🔑 Key Words
- Sankey diagram: a diagram which shows the flow of energy in an energy transfer.
Lesson 13Electrical Charge and Current→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 67–69 and 73–74
📚 Specification Points
- 2.12 know that lamps and LEDs can be used to indicate the presence of a current in a circuit
- 2.14 know that current is the rate of flow of charge
- 2.16 know that electric current in solid metallic conductors is a flow of negatively charged electrons
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the difference between charge and current
- describe current as a flow of charge
- know and use the relationship: charge = current × time.
🔑 Key Words
- ammeter: an instrument to measure electric current
- ampere (A): the unit of electric current
- conductor: a material that can carry an electric current
- coulomb (C): the unit of electric charge
- electric charge (Q): a property some particles or objects have; charge can be either positive or negative charge = current × time (Q = I × t )
- electric current (I): the rate of flow of electric charge
- electrons: the negatively charged particles responsible for electric currents in metals
- insulator: a material that cannot carry an electric current
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with electrical equipment. Do not connect circuits to mains. Switch off power before changing connections.
Lesson 15Current and Voltage→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 69–74
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C), joule (J), ohm (Ω), second (s) and volt (V)
- 2.8 understand how the current in a series circuit depends on the applied voltage and the number and nature of other components
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand current in simple series circuits
- understand qualitatively the effect on current of changing the applied voltage
- understand that when more resistors are added to a series circuit the current decreases.
🔑 Key Words
- ammeter: an instrument used to measure electric current
- ampere (A): the unit of electric current
- electric current (I ): the rate of flow of electric charge
- ohm (Ω): the unit of electrical resistance
- resistance: the difficulty current experiences in a circuit
- resistor: a component designed to reduce the current in a circuit
- voltage (V ): the amount of energy carried by each unit of charge from a cell/battery or power supply to the circuit components
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Take care with electrical equipment. Do not connect circuits to mains. Switch off power before changing connections.
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 80–83
📚 Specification Points
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate how the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature
- investigate how the resistance of a light-dependent resistor (LDR) varies with light intensity (brightness)
- plot graphs showing how resistance varies with an external factor.
🔑 Key Words
- light-dependent resistor (LDR): a circuit component that changes resistance depending on the brightness of the light falling on it
- ohm (Ω): the unit of electrical resistance
- resistance: the difficulty current experiences in a circuit
- resistor: a component designed to reduce the current in a circuit
- semiconductor: a material that has high electrical resistance in some conditions but will conduct electricity in others
- thermistor: a circuit component that changes resistance depending on its temperature
Lesson 17Changing Resistance and Alternating Current→Year 10 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 65 and 80
📚 Specification Points
- 2.6 know the difference between mains electricity being alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.) being supplied by a cell or battery
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- analyse graphs of resistance for thermistors and light-dependent resistors
- describe the difference between alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.)
- compare oscilloscope traces for a.c. and d.c.
🔑 Key Words
- alternating current (a.c.): a current that reverses direction periodically – many times a second
- direct current (d.c.): a current that only travels in one direction
- light-dependent resistor (LDR): a circuit component that changes resistance depending on the brightness of the light falling on it
- thermistor: a circuit component that changes resistance depending on its temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not attempt to show mains voltages. While many oscilloscopes can handle these, they pose an unnecessary risk of electrocution in this demonstration.
- • Students do not need to be able to operate the oscilloscope or understand the details of its controls. However, they should be able to look at the screen and decide if a signal is a.c. or d.c.
Lesson 18Current, Voltage and Resistance→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 75–76 and 83
📚 Specification Points
- 2.10 describe the qualitative effect of changing resistance on the current in a circuit
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current × resistance V = I × R
🎯 Learning Objectives
- form the equation which relates current, voltage and resistance
- use the relationship voltage = current × resistance in a variety of contexts
- measure resistance in practical circuits using an ammeter and a voltmeter.
🔑 Key Words
- ampere (A): the unit of electric current
- electric current (I): the rate of flow of electric charge
- ohm (Ω): the unit of electrical resistance
- resistance (R): the difficulty current experiences in a circuit
- volt (V): the unit for voltage
- voltage (V): the amount of energy carried by each unit of charge from a cell/battery or power supply to the circuit components
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ensure that you use low voltages to keep any currents below 1 A.
Lesson 19Current–Voltage Characteristics→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 77–78
📚 Specification Points
- 2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to investigate this experimentally
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current × resistance V = I × R
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the resistance of components using the relationship voltage = current × resistance
- plan an investigation of how current varies with applied voltage for a wire and a resistor
- plot current–voltage graphs for a wire and a resistor
- describe the relationship between current and voltage for a wire and resistor.
🔑 Key Words
- ammeter: a device used to measure current in a circuit
- current–voltage characteristics graph: a graph showing the relationship between the current and voltage for a component
- ohmic conductor: a device where the resistance does not change with the current (as long as external conditions do not change)
- variable resistor: a resistor with changeable resistance which can be used to change the resistance in a circuit
- voltmeter: a device used for measuring voltages in a circuit
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Use low voltages to keep any currents below 1 A.
- • Do not touch the wire until it has cooled down.
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a table for analysis. Display the table template in the Slideshow: Results table . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books.
Lesson 20Investigating Filament Lamps and Diodes→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 77–78
📚 Specification Points
- 2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to investigate this experimentally
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current × resistance V = I × R
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the resistance of components using the relationship voltage = current × resistance
- plan an investigation of how current varies with applied voltage for a filament lamp and a diode
- plot current–voltage graphs for a filament lamp and a diode
- describe the relationship between current and voltage for a filament lamp and a diode.
🔑 Key Words
- conventional current: charge flow in a circuit from positive terminal to negative terminal
- diode: an electrical component that allows the flow of current in only one direction
- filament lamp: a lamp in which the light source is a fine electrical conductor heated by the passage of current
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The lamp will become hot, so do not touch it until it has time to cool down.
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a table for analysis. Display the table template on the slideshow. Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Note that their results table will need additional rows depending on the number of measurements made. Slideshow: Results table 1
- • Remind students that Ohm’s law states: The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it as long as the physical conditions (e.g. temperature) remain the same.
Lesson 74Series Circuits→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 72–73
📚 Specification Points
- 2.8 understand how the current in a series circuit depends on the applied voltage and the number and nature of other components
- 2.9 describe how current varies with voltage in wires, resistors, metal filament lamps and diodes, and how to investigate this experimentally
- 2.13 know and use the relationship between voltage, current and resistance: voltage = current x resistance (V = I x R)
- 2.19 calculate the currents, voltages and resistances of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
🎯 Learning Objectives
- calculate the currents of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
- calculate the voltages of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
- calculate the resistances of two resistive components connected in a series circuit
- explain why a series circuit is more appropriate for some applications.
🔑 Key Words
- resistance equation: resistance = voltage current R = V I
- series circuit: a series of components ‘one after the other’ where there is only one current path
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Currents should always be kept below 0.5 A so that the resistors do not overheat.
- • Students should work in pairs or small groups of three for this practical task.
- • Students do not necessarily need to plot the graph for the experiment before reaching the conclusion as the relationship should be obvious.
Lesson 75Parallel Circuits and Energy Transfer→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 69–74
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C), joule (J), second (s) and volt (V)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why a parallel circuit is more appropriate for some applications
- describe why current is conserved at a junction in a circuit
- state that the voltage across two components connected in parallel is the same
- define voltage as the energy transferred per unit charge passed and the volt as being a joule per coulomb
- recall and use the relationship energy transferred = charge × voltage.
🔑 Key Words
- energy transferred = charge × voltage, E = Q × V
- parallel circuit: an electric circuit that has more than one path that the current can follow
- voltage (V): the amount of energy carried by each unit of charge from a cell/battery or power supply to the circuit components
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Low voltage power supplies should be used to limit currents.
Lesson 77Mains Electricity Calculations→Year 10 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 63–65
📚 Specification Points
- 2.1 use the following units: ampere (A), coulomb (C), joule (J), ohm (Ω), second (s), volt (V) and watt (W)
- 2.4 know and use the relationship between power, current and voltage: power = current × voltage P = I × V and apply the relationship to the selection of appropriate fuses
- 6.1 use the following units: ampere (A), volt (V) and watt (W)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain why a current in a resistor results in the electrical transfer of energy and an increase in temperature, and how this can be used in a variety of domestic contexts
- recall and use the relationship: power = current × voltage
- use the relationship: energy transferred = current × voltage × time.
🔑 Key Words
- electrical energy equation: energy transferred by an electric current = current × voltage × time (E = I × V × t)
- electrical power equation: power = current × voltage (P = I × V)
- power equation: energy transferred = power × time (E = P × t)
Lesson 27Properties of Waves→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 97–99
📚 Specification Points
- 3.3 know the definitions of amplitude, wavefront, frequency, wavelength and period of a wave
- 3.4 know that waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter
- 3.1 use the following units: hertz (Hz) and metre (m)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the difference between longitudinal, transverse, mechanical and electromagnetic waves and give examples of each
- define amplitude and period of a wave
- define wavefront and wavelength of a wave
- know that waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter.
🔑 Key Words
- amplitude: maximum displacement or half the full height of a wave
- direction of propagation: the direction in which a wave carries energy
- electromagnetic wave: formed by oscillating electric and magnetic fields
- longitudinal wave: oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer
- mechanical wave: formed by oscillating particles
- oscillations/oscillating: periodic motion that repeats itself in a regular cycle
- period: time taken for one oscillation
- transverse wave: oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer
- wavefront: a line where all the oscillations are in phase and the same distance from the source
- wavelength: distance between adjacent points with identical displacements
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Clean up any water spills immediately.
- • Students should observe the motion of the wave crests.
Lesson 28Wave Speeds→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 99–101
📚 Specification Points
- 3.1 use the following units: hertz (Hz) and metre (m)
- 3.3 know the definitions of amplitude, wavefront, frequency, wavelength and period of a wave
- 3.5 know and use the relationship between the speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave: wave speed = frequency × wavelength v = f × λ
- 3.7 use the above relationships in different contexts, including sound waves and electromagnetic waves
🎯 Learning Objectives
- define frequency of a wave
- use the equation: wave speed = frequency × wavelength.
🔑 Key Words
- frequency: the number of waves per second
- wave speed: distance travelled by a wave per unit time
- wave speed equation: wave speed = frequency × wavelength
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Mop up any spilled water straight away
Lesson 29Investigating Reflection→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 102–103
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 explain that all waves can be reflected and refracted
- 3.14 know that light waves are transverse waves and that they can be reflected and refracted
- 3.15 use the law of reflection (the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the reflection of waves and give examples of reflection of longitudinal sound waves and transverse light waves
- plan an investigation into the law of reflection using a ray box and a mirror
- state the law of reflection.
🔑 Key Words
- angle of incidence: the angle between the normal and the incident ray
- angle of reflection: the angle between the normal and the reflected ray
- the law of reflection: the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
- the normal: a line drawn perpendicular (at a 90° angle) to the reflecting surface at the point the ray meets the reflecting surface
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The ray box can get hot, so students should take care when handling it not to burn their fingers.
- • The light bulb is likely to be fragile so easily broken, and broken glass is a hazard.
- • Glass mirrors can have sharp edges, especially when chipped.
- • It is important that students attempt to collect accurate data for the experiment: they need to take great care with the protractor and try to measure to the nearest degree. This can be quite challenging (see Support ).
- • Make sure students record the data they have collected in a simple table for analysis. Display the Slideshow: Results table . Students should copy and complete the table in their exercise books. Slideshow: Results table
- • Students may point out that the angles do not exactly match. Ask: Why do you think there is some variation? (Possible answers: small errors in reading angles, inaccurate positioning of the protractor, or placing the mirror exactly on the paper between readings.)
Lesson 30Images in Mirrors→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 102–103
📚 Specification Points
- 3.15 use the law of reflection (the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state and apply the law of reflection to draw ray diagrams for simple reflections
- locate and then describe the properties of the image formed in a plane mirror.
🔑 Key Words
- laterally inverted: when the left and right sides are reversed
- virtual image: an image formed where imaginary rays appear to come from
- real image: an image formed by real rays passing through a point
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Any water spills should be cleaned up immediately.
- • Keep electrical equipment away from water.
- • You should remind students of the relationship between wavefronts and the direction of travel: Ask: Which way are the wavefronts moving? (Answer: In the direction of propagation.)
- • Place the flat barrier into the tank so that it makes an angle of approximately 45° with the wavefronts. Describe what happens to the wavefronts when they reach the barrier. The students should see that the wavefronts are reflected from the flat barrier at the same angle that they hit the barrier at. Ask students: Are the waves following the law of reflection? Briefly share students’ thoughts then move to the next step.
- • Be careful if a glass pane is used, they are fragile and can be sharp.
- • Make sure that you do not put your finger in the flame of the lit tealight.
Lesson 78Introducing Refraction→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 115–116
📚 Specification Points
- 3.9 explain that all waves can be reflected and refracted
- 3.14 know that light waves are transverse waves and that they can be reflected and refracted
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the refraction of waves as they move from one medium to another
- draw ray diagrams that show the ray paths for the refraction of light.
🔑 Key Words
- dispersion: the splitting of white light into the colours of the visible spectrum
- medium (plural: media): the ‘material’ through which a wave travels
- normal (the): a line perpendicular (at right angles to) to a point on a surface or boundary. Used in the construction of ray diagrams.
- reflection: when a wave reaches a boundary and changes direction instead of entering a new medium
- refraction: change in speed, direction or wavelength of a wave when it crosses the boundary between two different media
Lesson 81Refraction of Light→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 115–117
Lab Book: Pages 17–20
📚 Specification Points
- 3.17 practical: investigate the refraction of light, using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and triangular prisms
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the behaviour of light at boundaries in a semi-circular glass block
- describe the total internal reflection of light at a glass–air boundary
- describe the dispersion of light in a glass prism.
🔑 Key Words
- critical angle (c): the angle of incidence which causes the angle of refraction to be 90 degrees
- dispersion: the splitting of white light into the colours of the visible spectrum
- refraction: change in speed, direction or wavelength of a wave when it crosses the boundary between two different media
- total internal reflection (TIR): when a light wave is reflected at the boundary between two different media; the reflection occurs when light is moving from a material which has a higher refractive index to one which has a lower refractive index
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Ray boxes might get hot. Take care when touching the ray box. Switch the light source off between making measurements.
Lesson 84Total Internal Reflection→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 117–121
📚 Specification Points
- 3.20 describe the role of total internal reflection in transmitting information along optical fibres and in prisms
- 3.21 explain the meaning of critical angle c
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what is meant by total internal reflection, including the importance of the critical angle, c
- know and use the relationship between the critical angle and the refractive index: sin   c = 1 n
- describe the role of total internal reflection in transmitting information along optical fibres and in prisms.
🔑 Key Words
- critical angle (c): the angle of incidence which causes the angle of refraction to be 90 degrees
- critical angle equation: sin   c = 1 n
- optical density: the degree to which light waves are slowed down in a medium; in a material with a high optical density, light waves travel more slowly than in a material with a lower optical density
- total internal reflection (TIR): when a light wave is reflected at the boundary between two different media; the reflection occurs when light is moving from a material which has a higher refractive index to one which has a lower refractive index
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Glass can have sharp edges; blocks should be checked in advance.
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
Lesson 31The Electromagnetic Spectrum – Long Wavelengths→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 106–109
📚 Specification Points
- 3.10 know that light is part of a continuous electromagnetic spectrum that includes radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma ray radiations, and that all these waves travel at the same speed in free space
- 3.11 know the order of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, including the colours of the visible spectrum
- 3.12 explain some of the uses of electromagnetic radiations, including: o radio waves: broadcasting and communications o microwaves: cooking and satellite transmissions o infrared: heaters and night vision equipment
- 3.13 explain the detrimental effects of excessive exposure of the human body to electromagnetic waves, including: o microwaves: internal heating of body tissue o infrared: skin burns and describe simple protective measures against the risks
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe visible light as part of the electromagnetic spectrum and that all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in free space
- give the order of the electromagnetic spectrum
- explain the uses of radio waves, microwaves, and infrared radiation
- explain the dangers of microwaves and infrared radiation and describe simple protective measures.
🔑 Key Words
- electromagnetic spectrum: the complete set of electromagnetic waves
- radio wave: electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelength, which are used in communications
- microwave: electromagnetic waves with wavelengths of a few cm, which are used for communications and cooking
- infrared radiation: electromagnetic waves with a wavelength longer than red visible light
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not look directly at the Sun.
- • Demonstrating the apparatus and the fact that there is a noticeable temperature rise is sufficient. You do not need to collect a complete set of data for students to analyse.
- • Students should predict what will happen to the thermometers. Ask: Which thermometer will show the greatest temperature increase?
Lesson 32The Electromagnetic Spectrum – Short Wavelengths→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 110-112
📚 Specification Points
- 3.10 know that light is part of a continuous electromagnetic spectrum that includes radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma ray radiations, and that all these waves travel at the same speed in free space
- 3.11 know the order of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, including the colours of the visible spectrum
- 3.12 explain some of the uses of electromagnetic radiations, including: o radio waves: broadcasting and communications o microwaves: cooking and satellite transmissions o infrared: heaters and night vision equipment
- 3.13 explain the detrimental effects of excessive exposure of the human body to electromagnetic waves, including: o microwaves: internal heating of body tissue o infrared: skin burns and describe simple protective measures against the risks
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state the order of the colours of visible light in terms of wavelength and frequency
- explain some uses of visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays
- explain some of the dangers of ultraviolet and gamma rays and describe simple protective measures.
🔑 Key Words
- ionising radiation: this causes atoms to gain or lose electric charge, forming ions
- light: waves that can be detected by the eye
- ultraviolet radiation: electromagnetic radiation beyond the violet part of the visible spectrum and which is ionising
- X: -
- rays: high-frequency electromagnetic radiation produced by electron collisions
- gamma radiation: very high-frequency electromagnetic radiation produced by nuclear decay
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Do not look at the bulb in the ultraviolet lamp and do not allow it to shine on your skin.
- • Students should work in small groups for this practical task, moving between the three stations and spending approximately 3 minutes at each. As they do so you should perform the demonstration for gamma rays at the third station to each group. Instructions are shown below in Teacher demonstration 1: Demonstrating gamma radiation .
- • Do not allow the students to handle the gas mantle or radioactive rock.
Lesson 33Investigating the Speed of Sound in Air→Year 10 · Term 3
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 124–125
Lab Book: Pages 25–26
📚 Specification Points
- 3.23 know that sound waves are longitudinal waves that can be reflected and refracted
🎯 Learning Objectives
- investigate the speed of sound in air
- reduce random timing errors by using repeating cycles.
🔑 Key Words
- random error: an error in measurements caused by random variations, such as reaction times
- percentage difference: the percentage difference between a measured value and the actual value
- mean: the average when all the numbers are added together and divided by how many there are
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Students should wear full shoes with closed heels and toes to protect their feet in case they drop the blocks.
- • Students should take care not to trap fingers or thumbs when clapping wooden blocks together.
- • Carry out the practical in a secure area, away from traffic or other hazards.
- • Students should follow the Method in the Lab Book to perform the core practical and record their results in the table on p. 25.
Lesson 37Density→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 173–175
Lab Book: Pages 37–40
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: degree Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram (kg), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- plan an investigation to find the density of a regular object
- plan an investigation to find the density of an irregular object by submersion in water.
🔑 Key Words
- density: \(\mathrm{density}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}}{\mathrm{volume}}\)
- volume of a cuboid: volume = length × width × height
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Mop up any spills straight away.
Lesson 38Density and Pressure→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 173–176
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.5 know and use the relationship between pressure, force and area: pressure=force/area
🎯 Learning Objectives
- know and use the relationship: \(\mathrm{density}=\frac{\mathrm{mass}}{\mathrm{volume}}\)
- know and use the relationship: \(\mathrm{pressure=\frac{force}{area}}\).
🔑 Key Words
- pascal: a unit of pressure where 1 pascal = 1 \(\mathrm{N/m^2}\)
- pressure: \(\mathrm{pressure=\frac{force}{area}}\)
Lesson 41Pressure in Fluids→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 176–179
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.6 understand how the pressure at a point in a gas or liquid at rest acts equally in all directions
- 5.15 explain how molecules in a gas have random motion and that they exert a force and hence a pressure on the walls of a container
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain how the molecules in a gas exert a pressure on the walls of their container
- know and use the relationship: pressure difference = height × density × gravitational field strength.
🔑 Key Words
- pressure: force per unit area, measured in pascals (Pa)
- pascal (Pa): the unit of pressure, equal to 1 N/m²
- fluid: a substance that can flow; a liquid or a gas
- pressure in fluids: pressure increases with depth and acts equally in all directions at a point
Lesson 95Temperature in Kelvin→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 190–192
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram, kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.16 understand why there is an absolute zero of temperature which is -273 °C
- 5.17 describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
- 5.18 understand why an increase in temperature results in an increase in the average speed of gas molecules
- 5.19 know that the Kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
- know that the Kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules.
🔑 Key Words
- absolute zero: the lowest possible temperature (-273 °C or 0 K) at which particles have no kinetic energy
- kelvin (K): the SI unit of temperature; 0 K = -273 °C
- kinetic energy of particles: the energy of motion of particles, which increases with temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Wear eye protection and use heatproof gloves when handling hot equipment. Avoid touching the
Lesson 97The Pressure Law→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 187–192
📚 Specification Points
- 5.1 use the following units: degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K), joule (J), kilogram, kilogram/metre3 (kg/m³), metre (m), metre2 (m²), metre3 (m³), metre/second (m/s), metre/second2 (m/s2), newton (N) and pascal (Pa)
- 5.20 explain, for a fixed amount of gas, the qualitative relationship between: • pressure and volume at constant temperature • pressure and Kelvin temperature at constant volume
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain, for a fixed amount of gas, the qualitative relationship between pressure and Kelvin temperature at constant volume
- use the relationship between the pressure and Kelvin temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume: p 1 T 1 = p 2 T 2
🔑 Key Words
- pressure law: at constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
- directly proportional: as one quantity increases, the other increases by the same factor
- absolute temperature: temperature measured in kelvin
Lesson 43Magnetic Fields→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 199–201
Lab Book: Pages 44–47
📚 Specification Points
- 6.4 understand the term 'magnetic field line'
- 6.6 practical: investigate the magnetic field pattern for a permanent bar magnet and between two bar magnets
- 6.7 describe how to use two permanent magnets to produce a uniform magnetic field pattern
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the term ‘magnetic field line’
- use a compass to plot the shape of magnetic fields surrounding a single magnet and pair of magnets.
🔑 Key Words
- magnetic field: the region of space around a magnet where a magnetic material experiences a force
- magnetic field line: a line showing the direction of the force produced by a magnet
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection to prevent the iron filings getting into eyes.
- • Wear eye protection to prevent the ironing filings getting into eyes.
Lesson 44Magnetic Fields Around Current-Carrying Wires→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 201–203
📚 Specification Points
- 6.8 know that an electric current in a conductor produces a magnetic field around it
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the magnetic effect of a current in a wire
- draw magnetic field patterns produced by a current-carrying wire and a solenoid
- describe the construction of an electromagnet.
🔑 Key Words
- electromagnet: a magnet produced by passing an electric current through a solenoid
- solenoid: a long cylindrical coil of wire
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- Do not touch the wire while the current is flowing, as it can get very hot. Switch
Lesson 45The Motor Effect→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 206–208
📚 Specification Points
- 6.12 understand why a force is exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field and how this effect is applied in simple d.c. electric motors and loudspeakers
- 6.13 use the left-hand rule to predict the direction of the resulting force when a wire carries a current perpendicular to a magnetic field
- 6.14 describe how the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field changes with the magnitude and direction of the field and current
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the force on a charged particle when it moves in a magnetic field if its motion is not parallel to the field
- describe the force on a current-carrying wire when it is placed in a magnetic field.
🔑 Key Words
- motor effect: the force affecting a changed particle when if moves through a magnetic field
- Fleming’s left-hand rule: a rule to find the direction of the current (second finger), magnetic field (first finger) or force on a current-carrying wire (thumb); the first finger, second finger and thumb must be placed perpendicular to each other
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • A strong bar magnet should be sufficient to cause deflection. Be careful not to tap the glass with the magnet or it may be damaged. Hold the magnet firmly.
Lesson 46Motors and Speakers→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 208–209
📚 Specification Points
- 6.12 understand why a force is exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field and how this effect is applied in simple d.c. electric motors and loudspeakers
- 6.13 use the left-hand rule to predict the direction of the resulting force when a wire carries a current perpendicular to a magnetic field
- 6.14 describe how the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field changes with the magnitude and direction of the field and current
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the operation of a loudspeaker
- describe the operation of a simple electric motor
- construct a simple electric motor.
🔑 Key Words
- electric motor: the most important use of the motor effect, where movement is produced from current and a magnetic field
- loudspeaker: uses the motor effect to produce vibrations (sounds) from varying electrical signals
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Avoid high volumes and very high frequencies which can be annoying.
Lesson 49The Structure of the Atom→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 221–224
📚 Specification Points
- 7.2 describe the structure of an atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons and use symbols such as to describe particular nuclei
- 7.3 know the terms atomic (proton) number, mass (nucleon) number and isotope
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the structure of the atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons
- understand and use \({}_Z^A\text{X}\) notation for describing a nucleus
- explain what is meant by an isotope of a particular element.
🔑 Key Words
- atomic number: number of protons
- isotope: atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons in the nucleus
- mass number: number of protons plus number of neutrons
- nucleon number: number of protons plus number of neutrons
Lesson 50Radioactive Decay→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 224–226
📚 Specification Points
- 7.4 know that alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, and gamma (γ) rays are ionising radiations emitted from unstable nuclei in a random process
- 7.5 describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles and gamma (γ) rays, and recall that they may be distinguished in terms of penetrating power and ability to ionise
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain what an ion is and how it forms in the process of ionisation
- understand that radioactive decay is both a random and spontaneous process
- describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β-) particles, and gamma (γ) rays.
🔑 Key Words
- alpha particle: two protons and two neutrons
- beta particle: electron from inside the nucleus
- gamma rays: a high energy electromagnetic wave
- ion: atom which has gained or lost electrons
- random: we cannot predict which nucleus will decay next, or when a particular nucleus will decay
- spontaneous: the decay of a nucleus cannot be influenced with any changes to conditions, for example, chemical reactions, temperature, pressure
Lesson 51Properties of Radiation→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 224–226
Lab Book: Pages 48–50
📚 Specification Points
- 7.5 describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles and gamma (γ) rays, and recall that they may be distinguished in terms of penetrating power and ability to ionise
- 7.6 practical: investigate the penetration powers of different types of radiation using either radioactive sources or simulations
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β-) particles, and gamma (γ) rays
- understand the penetration power of each type of radiation and relate this to their ability to ionise.
🔑 Key Words
- alpha particle (α): a positively charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons, emitted during radioactive decay
- beta particle (β⁻): a fast-moving electron emitted from the nucleus during radioactive decay
- gamma ray (γ): a high-energy electromagnetic wave emitted from the nucleus
- ionising power: the ability of radiation to remove electrons from atoms
- penetrating power: the ability of radiation to pass through materials
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Sources should not be pointed towards the body or face.
- • When not in use, radioactive sources should be kept in a locked lead-lined safe.
Lesson 53Detecting and Measuring Radioactive Decay→Year 11 · Term 1
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 233–237
📚 Specification Points
- 7.1 use the following units: becquerel (Bq), hour (h), minute (min) and second (s)
- 7.10 explain the sources of background (ionising) radiation from Earth and space
🎯 Learning Objectives
- state that photographic film or a Geiger−Müller detector can detect ionising radiation
- describe and explain background radiation
- state that the activity of a radioactive source decreases over time and is measured in becquerels.
🔑 Key Words
- activity: the number of decays per second, measured in becquerels
- background radiation: radiation around us all the time
- becquerel: unit of activity, 1 Bq = 1 decay per second
Lesson 54Half-life→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 237–239
📚 Specification Points
- 7.12 know the definition of the term half-life and understand that it is different for different radioactive isotopes
🎯 Learning Objectives
- understand and use the term half-life
- use the concept of the half-life to carry out simple calculations on activity.
🔑 Key Words
- half-life: the time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei (or activity) of a sample to halve
- radioactive decay: the random process by which an unstable nucleus emits radiation
- activity: the number of radioactive decays per second, measured in becquerels (Bq)
Lesson 55Dangers of Radioactivity→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 243 and 247–248
📚 Specification Points
- 7.15 describe the difference between contamination and irradiation
- 7.16 describe the dangers of ionising radiations, including: • that radiation can cause mutations in living organisms • that radiation can damage cells and tissue • the problems arising from the disposal of radioactive waste and how the associated risks can be reduced
🎯 Learning Objectives
- to explain the danger of radiation to humans
- how the problems arising from the disposal of radioactive waste and the associated risks can be reduced.
🔑 Key Words
- contamination: unwanted presence of radioactive material
- irradiation: past exposure to radiation, does not emit radiation
Lesson 56Uses of Radioactivity 1→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 243–246
📚 Specification Points
- 7.14 describe uses of radioactivity in industry and medicine
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe uses of radioactivity in industry, such as thickness monitoring and tracers
- describe uses of radioactivity in medicine, such as diagnosis and treatment of cancer
- explain why specific types of radiation are chosen for different applications
🔑 Key Words
- carbon dating: a method for determining the age of something containing organic material using the half-life of carbon-14
- carbon-14: a radioactive isotope of carbon
Lesson 57Uses of Radioactivity 2→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 241–243
📚 Specification Points
- 7.14 describe uses of radioactivity in industry and medicine
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe and explain uses of radioactivity in medicine.
🔑 Key Words
- tracer: a radioactive substance introduced into a system to track the flow or movement of materials
- radiotherapy: the use of ionising radiation to destroy cancer cells
- sterilisation: the use of gamma radiation to kill bacteria on medical instruments or food
Lesson 106Nuclear Fission→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 250–253
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.18 understand how a nucleus of U-235 can be split (the process of fission) by collision with a neutron, and that this process releases energy as kinetic energy of the fission products
- 7.19 know that the fission of U-235 produces two radioactive daughter nuclei and a small number of neutrons
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how a nucleus of U-235 can be split by absorption of a neutron, releasing energy as kinetic energy of the fission products and producing two radioactive daughter nuclei and a small number of neutrons
- describe how a chain reaction can be set up if the neutrons produced by one fission strike other U-235 nuclei.
🔑 Key Words
- chain reaction: occurs when the fission of one nucleus releases two or three neutrons which cause other nuclei to undergo fission
- daughter nuclei: two smaller nuclei formed as a result of nuclear fission
- fissile: a (large) nuclei which can undergo fission
- fission: splitting up of a large nucleus to form smaller nuclei
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • There are no safety concerns to consider for this practical.
- • Students should work in small groups, from two to four students, to carry out the task. They should answer the worksheet questions in their exercise books as they work through the task. Worksheet 2 Answer sheet
Lesson 107Fission Reactors→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 250–253
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.22 understand the role of shielding around a nuclear reactor
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the process of nuclear fission in a reactor
- explain the roles of control rods, moderator and shielding in a fission reactor
- understand that nuclear fission is a source of energy
🔑 Key Words
- control rods: rods made of boron or cadmium that control the rate of fission
- moderator: a material such as water or graphite which is used to slow down the neutrons
Lesson 108Nuclear Fusion→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 250–253
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission
- describe nuclear fusion as the joining of small nuclei to form larger nuclei with a loss of mass
- understand that fusion releases energy and is the energy source for stars
🔑 Key Words
- nuclear fusion: the joining of two small atomic nuclei to form a larger nucleus, releasing energy
- nuclear fission: the splitting of a large atomic nucleus into two smaller nuclei, releasing energy
- mass defect: the difference in mass between the reactants and products of a nuclear reaction
- plasma: an extremely hot gas in which atoms are stripped of their electrons
Lesson 109Fusion Reactors and the Sun→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 253–254
📚 Specification Points
- 7.17 know that nuclear reactions, including fission, fusion and radioactive decay, can be a source of energy
- 7.25 know that fusion is the energy source for stars
🎯 Learning Objectives
- explain the conditions necessary for nuclear fusion in stars/the Sun
- explain the challenges of designing the nuclear fusion reactor for a power station.
🔑 Key Words
- nuclear fusion: the joining of light nuclei to form heavier nuclei, releasing energy
- electrostatic repulsion: the force that pushes positively charged nuclei apart
- plasma: a state of matter at extremely high temperatures where electrons are separated from nuclei
- star: a massive body that generates energy through nuclear fusion
Lesson 59Motion in the Universe→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 259–266
📚 Specification Points
- 8.1 use the following units: kilogram (kg), metre (m), newton (N), newton/kilogram (N/kg)
- 8.2 know that: • the universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies • a galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars • our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy
- 8.3 understand why gravitational field strength, g, varies and know that it is different on other planets and the Moon from that on the Earth
- 8.4 explain that gravitational force: • causes moons to orbit planets • causes the planets to orbit the Sun • causes artificial satellites to orbit the Earth • causes comets to orbit the Sun
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe some of the structure of the Universe:the Universe as a large collection of billions of galaxiesa galaxy is a large collection of billions of starsour Solar System is in the Milky Way galaxy
- the Universe as a large collection of billions of galaxies
- a galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars
- our Solar System is in the Milky Way galaxy
- explain why gravitational field strength,g, varies
- explain the effects of gravitational force on the Solar System
- state that gravitational force causes artificial satellites to orbit
- the
- Earth.
🔑 Key Words
- galaxy: a collection of billions of stars held together by gravitational forces
- moon: an object in orbit around a planet
- planet: a large, spherical, object in orbit around a star
- solar system: a star and the contents in orbit around it (planets, asteroids and comets)
- Universe: all the matter and energy in existence
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Make sure that the space is safe to release the string.
- • Do not spin the bung quickly or use a large one.
Lesson 60Orbital Motion→Year 11 · Term 2
📁 Open Lesson Folder →
Textbook: Pages 261–264
📚 Specification Points
- 8.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s),newton (N), second (s)
- 8.4 explain that gravitational force: • causes moons to orbit planets • causes the planets to orbit the Sun • causes artificial satellites to orbit the Earth • causes comets to orbit the Sun
- 8.5 describe the differences in the orbits of comets, moons and planets
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how gravitational forces cause comets to orbit the Sun in elliptical paths
- describe the differences in the orbits of comets, moons and planets
- use the relationship between orbital speed, orbital radius and time period for planetary orbits.
🔑 Key Words
- comet: a ball of ice and rock which orbits the Sun in an elliptical orbit
- elliptical orbit: an orbit which is like a squashed circle
- heliocentric: a model of the Solar System which places the Sun at the centre with the planets in orbit around it
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Wear eye protection
Lesson 61Life Cycle of a Star→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 268–269
📚 Specification Points
- 8.9 describe the evolution of stars of similar mass to the Sun through the following stages: • nebula • star (main sequence) • red giant • white dwarf
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe the evolution of stars of similar mass to the Sun through the stages of nebula, star (main sequence), red giant and white dwarf
- describe the evolution of stars with a mass larger than the Sun.
🔑 Key Words
- black hole: the remains of the largest stars where light cannot escape
- main sequence: the part of the life cycle of a star where it is stable
- nebula: a cloud of gases and dust
- neutron star: the remains of some supernova explosions, composed of only neutrons
- protostar: a hot ball of gas which will evolve into a star
- red giant: a large mass star with a low surface temperature
- red supergiant: a very large mass star with a low surface temperature
- supernova: the explosion of a very large star
- white dwarf: the remains of the core of a star which are at a very high temperature
Lesson 62Classifying Stars→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 266–267
📚 Specification Points
- 5.17 describe the Kelvin scale of temperature and be able to convert between the Kelvin and Celsius scales
- 8.7 understand how stars can be classified according to their colour
- 8.8 know that a star's colour is related to its surface temperature
🎯 Learning Objectives
- describe how stars are classified based on their colour
- discuss how a star’s temperature affects its colour
- convert between the degree Celsius and Kelvin scales.
🔑 Key Words
- Kelvin scale: a temperature scale used by scientists based on the behaviour of matter, the symbol used is K and the lowest possible temperature is 0 K
- stellar classification: a system of classifying stars by their colour or temperature
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • The lamp will become very hot – do not allow the students to touch it.
- • Do not let the students stare into the bright light.
Lesson 104The Red-Shift Equation→Year 11 · Term 2
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Textbook: Pages 271–273
📚 Specification Points
- 8.1 use the following units: metre (m), metre/second (m/s) and second (s)
🎯 Learning Objectives
- use the equation relating change in wavelength, original wavelength, velocity of a galaxy and the speed of light:\(\;\mathrm{\frac{change\;in\;wavelength}{wavelength}}=\mathrm{\frac{velocity\;of\;galaxy}{speed\;of\;light}}\)
- describe the red-shift in light received from galaxies at different distances away from the Earth and explain why the red-shift of galaxies provides evidence for the expansion of the Universe. Slideshow: Learning objectives
🔑 Key Words
- Doppler shift equation: \(\mathrm{\frac{change\;in\;wavelength}{wavelength}}=\mathrm{\frac{velocity\;of\;galaxy}{speed\;of\;light}}\) or \(\frac{\lambda-\lambda_\circ}{\lambda_\circ}=\frac{\triangle\lambda}{\lambda_\circ}=\frac vc\)
- recessional velocity: the velocity at which a galaxy is moving away from us
⚠️ Notes & Safety
- • Don’t burst the balloon.